STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL :
SQL is used to fetch data from the data base for
reporting.
DATABASE :
It is a collection of meaningful data which can store in
the form of rows & columns in a table.
RDBMS :
Relational Database Management System
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM :
It is a software it help to manage the data base
management system should able to perform the following
activities very easily.
● Inserting the new file
● Upating the existing file
● Deleting unnecessary data
● Retriving the required data
EXAMPLES OF RDBMS :
● ORACLE
● SQL SERVER
● DBL
● MYSQL
● SYBASE
● TERA DATA.
SQL :
SQL pronounced as (SEQUEL) .This language is use to
communicate with oracle database.
SQL COMMANDS :
1. DDL -- DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE
2. DML -- DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE
3. DRL/DQL -- DATA RETRIVAL/QUERY LANGUAGE
4. TCS -- TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE
5. DCL -- DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE.
1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE :
This language is used to manage database objects.
These are 5 commads
1. CREATE
2. ALTER
3. DROP
4. TRUNCATE
[Link]
NOTE :
* DDL can deal with structure (meta data).
* DDL commands have “auto commit” option.
* DDL commands can store operations that what we
perform & stores permantly.
 * DDL commands deals with disc always.

DML

NO AUTO COMMIT

1. CREATE
To create a table to use CREATE command
SYNTAX :
CREATE table table_name(
Column1 datatype (size),
Column2 datatype (size),
----
----
Column3 datatype (size)
);
EX:
CREATE table python batch
(sno number(38),
 Sname varchar2(100),
Sloc varchar2(100),
Srank number(10),
Sphone number(10)
);
2. ALTER :

WE use ALTER command to modification of the structure

of the table.
● We have 3 important ALTER commands are
[Link]
[Link]
[Link].
(a).ADD :
WE use ALTER+ADD for adding a new column in a new
table.
SYNTAX :
ALTER table table_name add(column1 datatype(size),
(column2 datatype(size),…);
EX:
ALTER table python batch add(sstate varchar2(100),
Scountry varchar2(100));
 Table altered
(b) MODIFY :
We can use ALTER+MODIFY to change datatype
name& to change size of the column.
** TO VIEW TABLE STRUCTURE
SYNTAX : desc table_name;
desc python batch;

SYNTAX OF MODIFY :
ALTER table table_name modify(column name
Datatype(size),……);
EX :
ALTER table python batch modify(sstate
number(38));
table is altered
(c).DROP :
We can use ALTER+DROP to remove single column
(or) multiple column from the table in the database.
SYNTAX FOR ONE COLUMN :
ALTER table table_name drop columnname;
EX :
ALTER table python batch drop sstate;
Table altered
SYNTAX FOR MORE THAN ONE COLUMN :
ALTER table table_name drop(column1,column2,..);
EX :
ALTER table python batch drop(sstate,smail);
Table altered
3. DROP :
We use DROP command to remove objects from
the database such as table,view,index&structure….
SYNTAX :
DROP table table_name;
EX :
DROP table python batch;
Table altered
4. TRUNCATE :
We can use TRUNCATE command to remove the
data permently from the table.
SYNTAX :
TRUNCATE table table_name;
EX :
 TRUNCATE table python batch;
Table truncated
NOTE :
● When we are doing TRUNCATE operation
data will be removed from the table
permently& structure remains same.
● There is no filter operation in TRUNCATE
command.
5. RENAME :
We can use RENAME to change name of the table.
SYNTAX :
RENAME old table_name to new table_name;
EX :
RENAME python batch to sql batch;
Table renamed
NOTE :
Whenever we are performing RENAME operation
the old names wont be available in database.
***FLASHBACK QUERY :
We use FLASHBACK QUERY to restores the
dropped table from the recycle bin.
SYNTAX :
 FLASHBACK table table_name to before drop;
EX :
FLASHBACK table python batch to before drop;

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE :

This language is used to manipulated the data
you have [Link] is collection of 4 commands.
1. INSERT
2. UPDATE
3. DELETE
1. INSERT :
WE use INSERT command to store and insert data .
To INSERT data into 3 methods
METHOD 1 :
SYNTAX :
INSERT into table_name values(coumn1,column2,..);
EX :
INSERT into emp values(111,’raju’,’IT’,’8765’,’23-JAN-
95’,400);
1 row created
**inserting the data into particular column.
 METHOD 2 :
SYNTAX :
INSERT into
table_name(column1,column2,…)
values(value1,value2,…);
EX :
INSERT into
Emp(eno,ename,esal)
Values(565,raju,50000);
1 row created
METHOD 3 :
SYNTAX :
INSERT into
Table_name(column1,column2,…)
Values(&column1,&column2,…);
EX :
INSERT into
Emp(eno,ename,esal)
Values(&eno,&ename,&esal);
EXECUTION:
Enter value for emp no 565
Enter value for emp name :raju
Enter value for emp sal 50000
****
TO CHECK COUNT OF A TABLE
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP;
[Link] :
We can use UPDATE command to change required
value from the particular in the table.
SYNTAX :
UPDATE table_name set column=’new value’
Where column=’unique value for a record’;
EX :
UPDATE emp set job=’police’
Where empno=’102’;
1 row updated
[Link] :
We can use DELETE command to remove
single(or)multiple records from the table.
SYNTAX :
FOR SINGLE RECORD :
 DELETE from table _name
Where column name= value;
EX :
DELETE from emp
Where esal=2000;
1 record deleted
FOR MULTIPLE RECORDS :
DELETE from table_name;
EX :
DELETE from emp;
Table deleted
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DELETE/TRUNCATE
DELETE TRUNCATE
[Link] Command [Link] command
[Link] remove the data from the [Link] remove the data from the
Table table
[Link] use rollback after delete [Link] cannot use rollback
Command to get back the data because truncate can removes
data permently from the table
[Link] can store in buffer [Link] can remove the data
permently but structure
remains same
[Link] has temporary memory [Link] has no temporary
memory to store the data
[Link] can be performs slowy [Link] performance is high
Because of buffer . because of no buffer.
3. DATA RETRIVIAL/QUERY LANGUAGE :
This language is used to retrive the data from
database. It is a collection of only one command.
1. SELECT
[Link] :
SYNTAX :
SELECT * from table_name;
Where * -- all columns of a table
EX :
SELECT * from emp;
SELECT ename,eno,esal ;
*PURGE :
PURGE is to drop (or) delete data permently
not in recycle bin also.
SYNTAX :
DROP table table_name PURGE;
EX :
DROP table emp PURGE;
4. TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE :
 It is used to maintain the transactions of
oracle [Link] has 3 commands
1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
1. COMMIT :
It is used to save the data Permently.
SYNTAX :
COMMIT;
2. ROLLBACK :
It is used to get back data from recycle bin.
*to use before commit rollback cannot work.
SYNTAX :
ROLLBACK;
[Link] CONTROL LANGUAGE :
This language is used to control the axis of data
to the [Link] has 2 commands
1. GRANT
2. REVOKE

1. GRANT :
 To give access to any one to use GRANT for
authentication.
2. REVOKE :
It give access then it will be take back
permissions to user.

DATA TYPES
DATA TYPES :
We use data types to store values in a
database.
● CHAR
● VARCHAR2
● NUMBER
● DATE
[Link] :
CHAR datatypes is used to store text
information. CHAR datatype size is 2 thousand.
2.VARCHAR2 :
VARCHAR2 datatype is used to store text
information. And VARCHAR2 datatype size is 4000.

3. NUMBER :
 NUMBER data type to store integer &
decimal values in [Link] datatype size is
‘38’. It is type.
It is default datatype.
● We can specify NUMBER datatype
without metric size as well.
NUMBER(P,S)
P—pre
s---scale
p s
300.70
4. DATE :
*We can use DATE datatype to store date
values.

* default DATE is “DD-MON-YY”

BLANK PADDED MECHANISM :
● We can use CHAR&VARCHAR2 datatype to
store text information in database.
● If we use CHAR datatype then it will
occupy complete memory for a given
range.
● If we use VARCHAR2 datatype then it will
be occupy “only memory for
 values”.eventhough if you specify any
range of values.

OPERATORS
SQL operators is a special symbol in database which
can be used for mathematical & logical operators.
1. ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
2. COMPANISION/RELATIONAL
OPERATORS
3. LOGICAL OPERATORS
4. SPECIAL OPERATORS
1. ARITHMETIC OPERATORS :
We can use ARITHMETIC OPERATORS for
mathematical operators.
1. ADD(+)
2. SUBSTRACT(-)
3. MULTIPLY(*)
4. DIVISION(/)
EX :
MULTIPLY :
-SELECT ename,sal,sal*12 from emp;
SUBSTRACT :
-SELECT ename,sal,sal-300 from emp;
ADD :
-SELECT ename,sal,sal+300 from emp;
DIVISION :
-SELECT ename,sal,sal/30 from emp;
[Link]/RELATIONAL OPERATORS :
We can use COMPANISION OPERATORS is
comparing values in the tabe.
● = → EQUALS TO
● > → GREATER THAN
● >= → GREATER THAN OR EQUALS
TO
● < → LESS THAN
● <= → LESS THAN OR EQUALS TO
● <> → NOT EQUALS TO
EX :
EQUALS TO :
-SELECT * from emp
where ename=’raju’;
GREATER THAN :
-SELECT * from emp
 where sal>2000;

LESS THAN :
-SELECT * from emp
where sal<1000;
GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO :
-SELECT * from emp
where sal>=3000;
LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO :
- SELECT * from emp
where sal<=3000;
NOT EQUAL TO :
- SELECT * from emp
where sal<>3000;

3. LOGICAL OPERATORS :
We can use LOGICAL OPERATORS to perform
logical conditions in a table.
● AND
● OR
● NOT
1. AND :
-If all the conditions what ever we are passing
in select statements must specify the conditions then
only it will be print the data.
-if one condition is false then it won’t print any
data from the table.
-display the emp who is working as a salesman
under dep no =10 from emp table
----SELECT * from emp
where job=’salesman’;
(true)
----SELECT * from emp
where job=’salesman’ and dep no=10;
(false)
No row selected
Note :
AND operator will search for the data from
“conditions output”.
2. OR :
 -In OR operator any one condition satisfy (or)
true then it is going to display the data from the table.
-all conditions are “independent in select”
statement.
EX :
SELECT * from emp
where job=’salesman’ or dep no=30;
[Link] :
-it is going to return the data “based on NOT
operator “ in the select table.
-display the employee expect salesman records from
emp.
--SELECT * from emp
where NOT job=’salesman’;
[Link] OPERATORS :
IN NOT IN
BETWEEN NOT BETWEEN
LIKE NOT LIKE
IS NULL IS NOT NULL

IN :
 -Display emps who is working as salesman & clerks
from emp table?
---- SELECT * from emp
where job IN (‘salesman’,’clerk’);
NOT IN :
-Display how many emps are there from emp
table except salesman & clerks ?
----SELECT count(*) from emp
Where job NOT IN (‘salesman’,’clerk’);
BETWEEN :
-Display the emps who is getting sal from 2000 to
5000 ?
-----SELECT * from emp
Where sal BETWEEN 2000 and 5000;
(and---to find range of values)
--dispay the emps from emp table who have joined
from 1981 to 1982 ?
----SELECT * from emp
Where hiredate BETWEEN’01-JAN-81’ and ’01-jan-
82’;
NOT BETWEEN :
 SELECT * from emp
Where sal NOT BETWEEN 2000 and 5000;
LIKE :
IN this operator used to emp from tabe who’s
letter starts with ‘A’ ?

SELECT * from emp

Where ename LIKE ‘%A’;

*%A—ENDS WITH ‘A’ LETTER

A%---STARTS WITH ‘A ‘LETTER
--Display total number of emps who has joined in
April month

SELECT COUNT(*) emp

Where hiredate LIKE ‘%APR%’;
EX :
select * from emp
where ename LIKE 'S%';

(Emp name starts with S Letter)

select * from emp

where ename LIKE '%S’;
 (Emp name ends with S Letter)

NOT LIKE :

select * from emp

where ename NOT LIKE 'S%';

(Emp name not starts with S Letter)

select * from emp

where ename NOT LIKE '%S' ;

(Emp name ends with S Letter)

NULL :
NULL is not a zero not a value “NULL is a absence
of value”.
NULL is not equal to zero
---display NULL values from commission column
using emp table ?
SELECT * from emp;
NOT NULL :
Except NULL values
SELECT * from emp;
Where comm is NOT NULL ;

NVL FUNCTION :
 We use NVL function to “hande null values in a
database”.
SYNTAX :
NVL(EXP1,EXP2)
EX :
--NVL(NULL,20) →20
--NVL(20,80) →20
--NVL(100,NULL) →100
--NVL(NULL,NULL) →NULL

--SELECT ename,sal,comm,sal+NVL(comm,0) as total

from emp;
SELECT QUERY FLOW

● SELECT
● FROM
● WHERE
● GROUP BY
● HAVING
● ORDER BY
SELECT :

IN this SELECT statement we specify column names.

FROM :
IN this FROM clause we specify table names.
WHERE :
IN this WHERE clause we specify filter conditions.
GROUP BY :
IN this GROUP BY clause to group of data from the
table.
HAVING :
IN this HAVING clause to group of data from group by
output.
ORDER BY :
IN we use ORDER BY clause to sort the data in
ascending order (or) descending order of data.
--can we pass WHERE clause without GROUP BY?
(NO)
--can we use HAVING clause without GROUP BY?
(YES)but it apply the table data.
Difference between where clause & having clause
*where clause can be filter the rows from the table
data.
*having clause filter the data from group by outD
 SQL FUNCTIONS

1. NUMBER FUNCTIONS
2. CHARACTER FUNCTIONS
3. DATE FUNCTIONS
4. GROUP FUNCTIONS

[Link] FUNCTIONS :
ABS → abs(value)
In this abs function to avoid negative(-) to positive
sql>select abs(-900) from dual;
abs (-900)
900
MOD → mod(value1,value2)
In this mod function gives remainder value
sql>select mod(7,2) from dual;
mod (7,2)
1
ROUND → round(value),round(value1,value2)
In this round function avoids fraction value if it is
50% of above in fraction to add 1 in front value
 sql>select round(100.547) from dual;
if fraction part 547 it is above 500% so add 1
round(100.547)
101.
TRUNCATE → trunc(value),trunc(value1,value2)
In this trunc to removes fraction part
sql>select trunc(100.56) from dual;
trunc(100.56)
100.
GREATEST → greatest(value1,value2,value3,….)
In this greatest to give highest valve
sql>select greatest(100,20,50) from dual;
greatest(100,20,50)
100.
CIEL → ceil(value)
In this function is gives nearest greatest value
sql>select ceil(1.2) from dual;
ceil(1.2)
2
FLOOR → floor(value)
In this function is gives nearest lowest value
sql>select floor(2.9) from dual;
 floor(2.9)
2

2. CHARACTER FUNCTIONS :

LOWER → lower(ENAME)
In this function to make it lower case letters
sql>select lower(ENAME) from emp;
lower(‘RAJU’)
raju
UPPER → upper(ename)
In this function to make it upper case letters
sql>select UPPER(ename) from emp;
UPPER(‘raju’)
RAJU
INITCAP → initcap(ENAME)
In this function to make first letter is upper letter
sql>select initcap(ENAME) from emp;
initcap(‘raja sekhar reddy’)
Raja Sekhar Reddy
CONCAT → concat(exp1,exp2)
 In this function to add two arguments in one
argument
sql>select concat(‘wel’,’come’) from dual;
concat(‘wel’,’come’)
welcome
LENGTH → length(ENAME)

In this function to give length (no) of a data,space

also includes one length
sql>select length(‘raju’) from dual;
length(‘raju’)
4
sql>select length (raju--) from dual;
6

2. CHARACTER FUNCTIONS :

SUBSTRING
SUBSTR →
SUBSTR(EXP1,EXP2)/SUBSTR(EXP1,EXP2,EXP3)
In this substring to get datatype in which position wil be
taken.
sql>select substr(‘BANGALORE’,3) from dual;
 ---- NGALORE
sql>select substr(‘RAJU’,2) from dual;
----AJU
IN substring substr(exp1,exp2,exp3) in exp3 will be no of
characters will be taken.
sql>select substr(‘BANGALORE’,3,3) from dual;
-----NGA
sql>select substr(‘EXPRSDATA’,6,4) from dual;
------DATA

INSTRING
INSTR(exp1,exp2)
In this function the exact position of character will
given.
sql>select instr(‘raju@[Link]’,’@’) from dual;
----5 (position)

LPAD
LPAD → lpad(exp1,exp2,exp3)
In lpad to gives adding the characters in the lift side of a
expression.
sql>select lpad(‘RAJU’,2) from dual;
-----RA
sql>select lpad(‘RAJU’,5,’#’) from dual;
----#RAJU(to occupied 5 position ‘#’)
sql>select lpad(‘RAJU’,8,’#’) from dual;
-----####RAJU
sql>select lpad(‘RAJU’,8,’*’) from dual;
------****RAJU
sql>select lpad(‘RAJU’,8) from dual;
---- RAJU(SPACE allocate 4 positions in lift side)

RPAD
RPAD → rpad(exp1,exp2,exp3)
In this RPAD gives to add in right side of expression.
sql>select rpad(‘RAJU’,2) from dual;
----JU
sql>select rpad(‘RAJU’,5,’#’) from dual;
----#RAJU
sql>select rpad(‘RAJU’,8,’#’) from dual;
----RAJU####
sql>select rpad(‘RAJU’,8,’*’) from dual;
-----RAJU****
sql>select rpad(‘RAJU’,8) from dual;
----RAJU (4 positions space allocated)
 LTRIM
Ltrim(exp1,exp2)
In this LTRIM to remove unwanted spaces in lift
side.
sql>select
length(‘INDIA’),length(‘INDIA’),length(ltrime(‘
india’)) from dual;
length(INDIA) length(_INDIA) length(ltrim(INDIA))
5 6 5

RTRIM
RTRIM → rtrim(exp1,exp2)
In this rtrim can be remove unanted spaces in right side.
 sql>select
length(‘INDIA’),length(‘INDIA’),length(rtrime(‘
india ’)) from dual;
length(INDIA) length(INDIA _) length(rtrim(INDIA))
5 6 5

REPLACE
REPLACE → replace(exp1,exp2,exp3)
In this REPLACE can be used string by string.

sql>select replace(‘INDIA’,’I’,’xy’) from dual;

------xNDxA
( I is replace x only by string only)
TRANSLATE
TRANSLATE → translate(exp1,exp2,exp3)
In this TRANSLATE can be used character by
character.

sql>select translate(‘INDIA’,’I’,’xy’) from dual;

-----xyNDxyA
( I is translate into xy by character by character)
3. DATE FUNCTIONS :
SYSDATE (**sysdate should be in
(dd-mon-yy1)(02-jan-20)

In this sysdate is system date or current date.

Select sysdate from dual;
ADD_MONTHS
Select add_months(‘sysdate’,’+8’) from
dual;
IN This ADD_MONTHS to adding months in the data.

LAST_DAY
In this LAST_DAY Given if any date can be given to find the
last day of the That particular given date of last day can be
executed.
NEXT_DAY
In this NEXT_DAY gives the date to give any date of week
of next day in the month will be shown.
MONTHS_BETWEEN
In this MONTHS_BETWEEN can be givs the difference
between one date/monthyear to
anotherdate/months/years.
[Link] FUNCTIONS :
MIN() FUNCTION
In this MIN() FUNCTION return the lowest value of a
column.
SYNTAX :
Select min(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition ;
In emp table
sql>select MIN(sal) from emp;
------MIN(sal)
4000
MAX() FUNCTION
In this function returns the largest value of the column.
SYNTAX :
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition ;
In emp table
sql>select MAX(sal) from emp;
-----MAX(sal)
20000
AVG() FUNCTION
The AVG() function returns the average value of a
numeric column.
SYNTAX :
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition ;
In EMP table
sql>select AVG(sal) from emp;
------AVG(sal)
2000
SUM() FUNCTION

numeric column.
SYNTAX :
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
In EMP table
sql>select SUM(sal) from emp;
------SUM(sal)
40000
COUNT() FUNCTION :

table.
SYNTAX :
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition ;
In EMP table
sql>select COUNT(sal) from emp;
-----COUNT(sal)
7(rows)
USING GROUP BY
ROLLUP

extra row to represents the subtotals(or) grand total of

rows in DOWN the rows.
Select emp(sal)
From emp
Group by emp(sal);
-------emp(sal)
200
100
400
ROLLUP-------700(TOTAL SAL)
CUBE() :

row to represents the subtotals(or) grand total of rows in

TOP the rows.
 Select emp(sal)
From emp
Group by emp(SAL);
-------EMP(sal)
CUBE-------700(TOTAL SAL IN TOP)
200
100
400.

SET OPERATIONS IN SQL

• Set operations which can be performed on

table data.
• Which gives meaning ful results from data
stored in the table.
• 4 types of set operations in sql.

[Link]
[Link] ALL
[Link]
[Link]
 CONDITIONS OF SET OPERATIONS
In this conditions will be satisfies then set
operations will be applied if not satisfied
those conditions set operations not taken.
[Link] both tables having same columns.
[Link] tables having same data types.

[Link]
• UNION is used to combine the results of
two or more SELECT statements.
• It eliminates duplicates rows from the
resultset.
• In this union,number of columns and
datatypes must be same in both
tables,then UNION operations being
applied.
• It does not allows duplicate rows.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM TABLE1
UNION
SELECT * FROM TABLE2;
EX :
To create tables EMP1 and EMP2.
EMP1 TABLE :
ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
EMP2 TABLE :

ENO ENAME
2 B
3 C

RESUIT :
Select * from EMP1;
UNION
Select * from EMP2;
ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
3 C
[Link] ALL :
• It is similar to union operation.
• But it allows the duplicate rows.
 SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM TABLE1
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM TABLE2;
EX :
To create tables EMP1 and EMP2.

EMP1 TABLE :
ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
EMP2 TABLE :

ENO ENAME
2 B
3 C

RESUIT :
Select * from EMP1;
UNION ALL
Select * from EMP2;
 ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
2 B
3 C
INTERSECT :
• INTERSECT operation is used to combine
two SELECT statements.
• But it ony returns the records which are
common from both SELECT statements.
• It has also no of columns and datatype must
be same.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM TABLE1
INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM TABLE2;
EX :
To create tables EMP1 and EMP2.
EMP1 TABLE :
ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
 EMP2 TABLE :

ENO ENAME
2 B
3 C
RESUIT :
Select * from EMP1;
INTERSECT
Select * from EMP2;
ENO ENAME
2 B

[Link] :
• The MINUS operation combines results
of two SELECT statements.
• It return only those in the final
result,which belongs to the first set of
result.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM TABLE1
MINUS
SELECT * FROM TABLE2;
EX :
To create tables EMP1 and EMP2.

EMP1 TABLE :
ENO ENAME
1 A
2 B
EMP2 TABLE :

ENO ENAME
2 B
3 C
RESUIT :
Select * from EMP1;
MINUS
Select * from EMP2;
ENO ENAME
1 A
 JOINS
It is fetching and retrieving the data from
multiple tables at a time.
[Link] format joins(‘on’).
[Link]-ANSI format joins(‘where’).
[Link] format joins(‘on’).
In this join can be fetching data by using ‘on’
keyword into to join the conditions.
Types
[Link] JOIN
[Link] JOIN
[Link] OUTER JOIN
[Link] OUTER JOIN
[Link] OUTER JOIN
[Link] JOIN.
[Link] JOIN :
It using the condition ‘equality(=)’
To satisfy this conditions
[Link] both tables having same columns.
[Link] tables having same data types.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1 INNER JOIN TABLE2 ON
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME=TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME

EX :
TO create two tables STUDENT and
COURSE .
TABLE1 : STUDENT

SNO SNAME SCOURSEID

1 A 101
2 B 102
3 C 103
TABLE2 : COURSE

CNO CNAME CCOURSEID

4 N 101
5 O 104
6 P 105
 RESULT :
Select * from
STUDENT inner join course on
[Link]=[Link];

SNO SNAME SCO_ID CNO CNAME CCO_ID

1 A 101 4 N 101

In this to selected matched records only will

be taken.

[Link] JOIN :
( MATCHED + UN MATCHED RECORDS)
 [Link] OUTER JOIN :
In this to retrieve the matched data with
LEFT SIDE table data also taken.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1 LEFT OUTER JOIN TABLE2 ON
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME=TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME
EX :
TO create two tables STUDENT and
COURSE .
TABLE1 : STUDENT
SNO SNAME SCOURSEID
1 A 101
2 B 102
3 C 103
TABLE2 : COURSE

CNO CNAME CCOURSEID

4 N 101
5 O 104
6 P 105
 RESULT :
Select * from
STUDENT left outer join course on
[Link]=[Link];

SNO SNAME SCO_ID CNO CNAME CCO_ID

1 A 101 4 N 101
2 B 102 NULL NULL NULL
3 C 103 NULL NULL NULL

[Link] OUTER JOIN :

In this to retrieve the matched data

with RIGHT side table data also taken.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN TABLE2 ON
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME=TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME
EX :
TO create two tables STUDENT and
COURSE .
TABLE1 : STUDENT

SNO SNAME SCOURSEID

1 A 101
2 B 102
3 C 103
TABLE2 : COURSE

CNO CNAME CCOURSEID

4 N 101
5 O 104
6 P 105

RESULT : Select * from

STUDENT right outer join course on
[Link]=[Link];
SNO SNAME SCO_ID CNO CNAME CCO_ID
1 A 101 4 N 101
NULL NULL NULL 5 O 104
NULL NULL NULL 6 P 105

[Link] OUTER JOIN :

In this to retrieve the matched data

and unmatched data [Link] values not
taken.

SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1 FULL OUTER JOIN TABLE2 ON
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME=TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME

EX :
TO create two tables STUDENT and
COURSE .
TABLE1 : STUDENT
 SNO SNAME SCOURSEID
1 A 101
2 B 102
3 C 103
TABLE2 : COURSE

CNO CNAME CCOURSEID

4 N 101
5 O 104
6 P 105
RESULT :
Select * from
STUDENT full outer join course on
[Link]=[Link];
SNO SNAME SCO_ID CNO CNAME CCO_ID
1 A 101 4 N 101
2 B 102 5 O 104
3 C 103 6 P 105

[Link] JOIN :
In CROSS JOIN is used to generate a paired
combination of each row of the first table with
each row of the second [Link] is also known as
cartesian join.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1 CROSS JOIN TABLE2;
[Link]-ANSI JOIN : (‘WHERE’)
[Link] JOIN
[Link]-EQUI JOIN
[Link] JOIN.
[Link] JOIN :
In this join to retrieve data with ‘equal(=)’
condition.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1,TABLE2 WHERE
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME=TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME

[Link]-EQUI JOIN :
In this join to retrieve data with
(‘ <’ ,’ >’ ,’ <=’ ,’ >=’ ) conditions.
SYNTAX :
SELECT * FROM
TABLE1,TABLE2 WHERE
TABLE1.COLUMN_NAME (<,>,<=,>=)
TABLE2.COLUMN_NAME

[Link] JOIN :
A SELF JOIN is a regular join ,but the
table is joined with itself.
SYNTAX :
Select A.COLUMN_NAME,B.COLUMN_NAME
From TABLE A,TABLE B
WhereA.COMMON_FIELD=B.COMMON_FIELD;
 SQL CONSTRAINTS

➢ CONSTRAINTS are used to stop invalid

data entry into tables.
➢ We use CONSTRAINTS for columns in
the table.
➢ 5 types CONSTRAINTS are there.
TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS :
[Link] NULL
[Link]
[Link] KEY
[Link] KEY
[Link].
[Link] :
➢ NOT NULL doesn’t support NULL VALUES.
➢ It will accept DUPLICATE VALUES.
NOTE :
❖This CONSTRAINT is not supported
for TABLE LEVEL.
EX :
CREATE table clg(cno number(10) NOT
NULL,cname varchar2(1000));
 Table created
Insert into clg values(10,’raj’);
1 row created
Insert into clg values(‘ ‘,’raj’);
Error
Error due cno is not [Link] the duplicate
allows ‘raj’ will be taken several times only
if you mention value as not null constraint
will be mustSatisfy is not null(absence of
number).
Insert into clg values(null,’raj’); → error
[Link] :
➢ UNIQUE constraint doesn’t accept
duplicate values.
➢ But it will accepts null values.
Reciprocal to not null.
➢ This is defined at column level & at
table level.
EX :
CREATE table clg(cno number(10)
UNIQUE,cname varchar2(1000));
Table created
Insert into clg values(‘ ‘,’raj’);
1 row created (accept null values)
Insert into clg values(‘10’,’raja’);
1 row created (not accept duplicate)
Insert into clg values(‘10’,’raju’);
Error
❖In this unique constraint to spicify
column will be unique that means it
accept null value and not accept
duplicate value in specified
columnname.
[Link] KEY :
➢ PRIMARY KEY doesn’t accept both NULL &
DUPLICATE VALUES.
➢ This key used to identify the UNIQUE record
from the table.
➢ We use primary key for relationship with
another tables.
➢ Primary key table is parent table (or) master
table.
➢ Only one primary key for one table.
EX :
create table clg (cno number(10) primary
key ,cname varchar2(10),primarykey(sno,name));
-> Error
(one table only one primary key)
Create table clg(cno number(10) primary
key,cname varchar2(1000));
table created
insert into clg values(10,’raj’);
1 row created
Insert into clg values(20,’ram’);
1 row created (in specify table primary key having
doesn’t accept null& duplicate)

Insert into clg values(20,’raj’);

Insert into clg values(‘ ‘,’raj’); error(null)
❖In this primary key having to specify
the columnname should be doesn’t
accept null&duplicate values.
COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY :
IN this composite primary key used to give
primary key set of columnnames.
EX :
Create table clg(cno number(10),name
varchar2(1000),primary key(cno,cname));
[Link] KEY :
➢ We use foreign key to maintain the relation
ship with the tables.
➢ We can call it as ‘referential integrity
constraints’.
 ➢ FOREIGN KEY always connection of
‘PRIMARY KEY COLUMNS’.
➢ PRIMARY KEY COLUMN & FOREIGN KEY
COLUMN must be same datatype.
➢ FOREIGN KEY COLUMNS will accept
duplicate and null values.
➢ This is called ‘CHILD TABLE’.
EX :
CREATE table clg(cno number(10) references
Clgoldprimarykey(cno),cname varchar2(1000));
Insert into clg values(20,’raj’);
Error because the foreign is relation of
primary key 20 is not in primary [Link] any values
in primary key with same datatype will accept
foreign key of values in specify columnname.
Insert into clg values(2,’raj’);
1 row created.
(2 value will be primary key with
same datatype in specify columnname).
NOTE :
❖All constraints can be used for column
level to avoid ambiguity.
❖Only primary key data will be inserted
into foreign key columns in any tables.
[Link] :
➢ CHECK constraint is used to stop invalid
entry to the columns in a table.
➢ In this constraint to accept the conditions in
a column.
EX :
CREATE table clg(cno number(10),cname
varchar2(1000),cid number(10) check(cid>5));
insert into clg (1,’raj’,’6’);
1 row created (cid>5,6 is greter than 5 )
Insert into clg(2,’dev’,’5’);
Error (cid>5,but 5 is not greater 5 is equal)
Insert into clg(3,’ram’,’2’);
Error (cid>5 but 5 is not greater than 3)

Create table clg(cno number(10),cname

varchar2(1000)
check(cname=upper(cname));

insert into clg values(1,’RAJ’);

1 row created
Insert into clg values(2,’raj’);
Error because not satisfy the condition of
[Link] shows lower case letters that’s the
error will be present.
NOTE :
TO SEE THE CONSTRAINTS DETAILS
SELECT constraint_name,constraint_type,
table_name from user_constraints
where table_name like ‘%clg%’;

HOW TO SEE CONSTRAINTS :

➢ We can see the constraints for columns
using ‘data dictionaries’.(real only tables
from database).
➢ For constraints we use USE_CONSTRAINTS
table to verify.

STEP 1 :
Desc USER_CONSTRAINTS;
STEP 2 :
SELECT constraint_name,constraint_type,
table_name from user_constraints
where table_name like ‘%clg%’;
HOW TO CREATE TABLE FROM
ANOTHER TABLE ?
TO CREATE STRUCTURE IN ONE TABLE FROM ANOTHER
TABLE :(ONLY STRUCTURE NO DATA).

CREATE table EMP_NEW as select * from EMP

WHERE 1=2;

(1=2 is only reference purpose you

take 2=3,7=9 anything just for reference).
TO CREATE DATA IN ONE TABLE FROM ANOTHER
TABLE :(ONLY DATA NO STRUCTURE).

CREATE table EMP_NEW as select * from EMP

WHERE 1=1;

(1=1 is only reference purpose you

take 2=2,7=7 anything just for reference).

(OR)

CREATE table EMP_NEW as select * from EMP;

 ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS

➢ We use ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS to

ASSIGN ‘RANKS’ to each row in a table
either group wise or row wise in a table.
➢ It is similar to ‘group by’ only.
➢ 3 main analytical functions are there.
1.Row_Number()
[Link]()
3.Dense_Rank()
Analytical functions syntax :
FOR GROUP WISE ROWS :

SELECT column1,column2,column3,…analytical
function name
Over(partition by column name order by column
names[asc/desc] from table name;
FOR ROW WISE ROWS :

SELECT column1,column2,…analytical function

name
Over (order by column name) from table name;
ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS :

ROW_NUMBER()
It will assign different rank numbers when
values are same.
RANK()
The function will assign same ranks when values
are same but rank() will SKIP NEXT
CONSECUTIVE rank numbers.
DENSE_RANK()
The function will assign same ranks when values
are same but Dense_rank() will DOESN’T SKIP
NEXT CONSECUTIVE rank numbers.
Analytical functions examples:
EXAMPLE :
To take empsal to find the
RANK(),DENSE_RANK()

EMPSAL RANK() DENSE_RANK()

5000 1 1
5000 1 1
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
4000 3 2
3000 10 3
2000 11 4
**rank() will taken by same sal has same
rank but it consider as next number.
**dense_rank will taken as same rank in
consecutive to next number.
ROW_NUMBER()

SELECT empno,sal,deptno,row_number()
Over(partition by deptno order by sal
Desc)
Sal_rank from emp;

RANK()

SELECT empno,sal,deptno,rank()
Over(partition by deptno order by sal
Desc)
Sal_rank from emp;

DENSE RANK()

SELECT empno,sal,deptno,Dense_rank()
Over(partition by deptno order by sal
Desc)
Sal_rank from emp;
Nth Highest Salary:

Write a query to get Nth highest salary using

Emp table.
Select * from (select
deptno,ename,sal,dense_rank()
over(order by sal desc)r from emp)
where r=&n;

Write a query to get Nth highest salary in

department wise using Emp table.
Select * from (select
deptno,ename,sal,dense_rank()
over (partition by deptno order by sal desc)
r from emp) where r=&n;