Name : Sk Sohan Rahaman
Class : XI [FIR]
Roll No. : 40
Subject : Chemistry Activity
Session--->2022-2023
Submitted To : Mr. Soudan Sain
TOPIC
Study Of The
Methods
Of Purification Of
Water
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I would like to convey our sincere
gratitude to the teacher [Link] for
letting us to do this project .I would
like to thank my friends for helping me
in this project and a special thanks to
chemistry teacher for guiding
throughout the project .I would like to
thanks our lab assistance [Link] for
all his help. Last but not least I would
like to thank my parents for their
valuable suggestion about this
project.
Contents
1 Sources of water
2 Treatment
o 2.1 Pre-treatment
2.1.1 pH adjustment
o 2.2 Sedimentation
2.2.1 Sludge storage and removal
o 2.3 Dissolved air flotation
o 2.4 Filtration
2.4.1 Rapid sand filters
2.4.2 Slow sand filters
o 2.5 Membrane filtration
o 2.6 Removal of ions and other dissolved
substances
o 2.7 Disinfection
2.7.1 Chlorine disinfection
2.7.2 Chlorine dioxide disinfection
2.7.3 Ozone disinfection
2.8.4 Ultraviolet disinfection
2.8.5 Solar water disinfection
3 Other water purification techniques
4. Demineralised water
INTRODUCTION
Water purification is the process of removing
undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water.
The goal is to produce water fit for a specific
purpose. Most water is purified for human
consumption (drinking water), but water purification
may also be designed for a variety of other purposes,
including meeting the requirements of medical,
pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications.
In general the methods used include physical
processes such as filtration, sedimentation,
and distillation, biological processes such as filters
or biologically active carbon, chemical processes such
as flocculation and chlorination and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
The purification process of water may reduce the
concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, alg
ae, viruses,fungi; and a range of dissolved and
particulate material derived from the surfaces that
water may have made contact with after falling
as rain.
The standards for drinking water quality are typically
set by governments or by international standards.
These standards will typically set minimum and
maximum concentrations of contaminants for the use
that is to be made of the water.
It is not possible to tell whether water is of an
appropriate quality by visual examination. Simple
procedures such as boiling or the use of a household
activated filter are not sufficient for treating all the
possible contaminants that may be present in water
from an unknown source. Even natural spring –
considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th
century – must now be tested before determining
what kind of treatment, if any, is
needed. Chemical and microbiological analysis, while
expensive, are the only way to obtain the information
necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of
purification.
According to a 2007 World Health
Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people lack
access to an improved drinking water supply, 88
percent of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal
disease are attributed to unsafe water and
inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and 1.8 million
people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The
WHO estimates that 94 percent of these diarrheal
cases are preventable through modifications to the
environment, including access to safe water. Simple
techniques for treating water at home, such as
chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and
storing it in safe containers could save a huge number
of lives each year. Reducing deaths from waterborne
diseases is a major public health goal in developing
countries.
PRESENTATION
Sources of water
1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep
ground water may have fallen as rain many tens,
hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock
layers naturally filter the ground water to a high
degree of clarity and often it does not require
additional treatment other than
adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary
disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs,
artesian, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells.
Deep ground water is generally of very
high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or
the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the
water may be rich in dissolved solids,
especially carbonates and sulphates of calcium and mag
nesium. Depending on the strata through which the
water has flowed, other ions may also be present
including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a
requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content
of this water to make it acceptable for drinking,
cooking, and laundry use. Primary disinfection may also
be required. Where groundwater recharge is practised
(a process in which river water is injected into an
aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it
is available in times of drought), the groundwater may
require additional treatment depending on applicable
state and federal regulations.
2. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the
headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are
usually sited above any human habitation and may be
surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the
opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen
levels are usually low, but some
bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where
uplands are forested or peaty,humic acids can colour
the water. Many upland sources have low pH which
require adjustment.
3. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface
waters will have a significant bacterial load and may
also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of
dissolved constituents.
4. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that
can provide high quality drinking water by extracting
water from the air by cooling the air and thus
condensing water vapour.
5. Rainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects
water from the atmosphere can be used especially in
areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which
experience fog even when there is little rain.
6. Desalination of seawater by distillation or reverse
osmosis.
7. Surface Water: Freshwater bodies that are open to
the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater
are classified in the USA for regulatory and water
purification purposes as surface water.
Treatment
The processes below are the ones commonly used in water
purification plants. Some or most may not be used
depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw
(source) water.
Pre-treatment
1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water must
be pumped from its source or directed into pipes or
holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the
water, this physical infrastructure must be made from
appropriate materials and constructed so that
accidental contamination does not occur.
2. Screening (see also screen filter) – The first step in
purifying surface water is to remove large debris such
as sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles
which may interfere with subsequent purification
steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening
before other purification steps.
3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored
in bank side reservoirs for periods between a few days
and many months to allow natural biological purification
to take place. This is especially important if treatment
is by slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide
a buffer against short periods of drought or to allow
water supply to be maintained during transitory
pollution incidents in the source river.
4. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water
was chlorinated to minimize the growth of fouling
organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the
potential adverse quality effects (see chlorine below),
this has largely been discontinued.
Widely varied techniques are available to remove the fine
solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and
organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the
quality of the water being treated, the cost of the
treatment process and the quality standards expected of
the processed water.
pH adjustment
Pure water has a pH close to 7
(neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values
that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh
water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the
geology of the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence
of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic
(lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be
added to raise the pH during water purification processes.
Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus
raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced
draft degasifierscan be an effective way to raise the pH,
by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the
water. Making the water alkaline
helps coagulation and flocculation processes work
effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being
dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe
fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness
of water to iron pipes. Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric
acid or sulphuric acid) may be added to alkaline waters in
some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above
pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from
the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water.
The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to
protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic
metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral
content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.
Sedimentation
Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter
the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling
basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing
floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is
best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit
between the two processes does not permit settlement or
floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular,
where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow
is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is
typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water—that
furthest from the sludge—exits.
In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a
sedimentation process was a function of the particle
settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface
area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed
within a range of overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons per
minute per square foot (or 1.25 to 2.5 meters per hour). In
general, sedimentation basin efficiency is not a function of
detention time or depth of the basin. Although, basin depth
must be sufficient so that water currents do not disturb
the sludge and settled particle interactions are promoted.
As particle concentrations in the settled water increase
near the sludge surface on the bottom of the tank, settling
velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration
of particles. Typical detention times for sedimentation vary
from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin depths vary from 10 to 15
feet (3 to 4.5 meters).
Inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional
sedimentation basins to improve particle removal
performance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase
the surface area available for particles to be removed in
concert with Hazen’s original theory. The amount of ground
surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined
plates or tubes can be far smaller than a conventional
sedimentation basin.
Sludge storage and removal
As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin,
a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This
layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount
of sludge that is generated is significant, often 3 to 5
percent of the total volume of water that is treated. The
cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a
significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment
plant. The sedimentation tank may be equipped with
mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the
bottom of the tank or the tank can be periodically taken out
of service and cleaned manually.
Dissolved air flotation
When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution
easily, dissolved air flotation (DAF) is often used. Water
supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae
blooms and supplies with low turbidity and high colour often
employ DAF. After coagulation and flocculation processes,
water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank
bottom create fine bubbles that attach to floc resulting in
a floating mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc
blanket is removed from the surface and clarified water is
withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank.
Filtration
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the
final step to remove remaining suspended particles and
unsettled floc.
Rapid sand filters
Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter
The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter.
Water moves vertically through sand which often has a
layer of activated carbon or anthracite coalabove the sand.
The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute
to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is
larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple
filtration is not enough. Most particles pass through
surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to
sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth
of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its
operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the
particles, the filter would quickly clog.
To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through
the filter, opposite the normal direction (called back
flushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles.
Prior to this step, compressed air may be blown up through
the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air
scouring. This contaminated water can be disposed of, along
with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be
recycled by mixing with the raw water entering the plant
although this is often considered poor practice since it re-
introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the
raw water
Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters.
These works on the same principle as rapid gravity filters,
differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel
vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.
Advantages:
Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand
filters can.
Filters out virtually all particles larger than their
specified pore sizes.
They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them
fairly rapidly.
They are reasonably strong and so can withstand
pressure differences across them of typically 2–5
atmospheres.
They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.
Slow sand filters
Slow "artificial" filtration (a variation of bank) to the ground, Water
purification plant Káraný, Czech Republic
Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land
and space, as the water must be passed very slowly through
the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment
processes for their action rather than physical filtration.
The filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of
sand, with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the
bottom and finest sand at the top. Drains at the base
convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration
depends on the development of a thin biological layer, called
the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface of the
filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service
for many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment is well
designed and produces water with a very low available
nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely
achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be safely
sent through distribution systems with very low
disinfectant levels, thereby reducing consumer irritation
over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products.
Slow sand filters are not backwashed; they are maintained
by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow is
eventually obstructed by biological growth.
A specific "large-scale" form of slow sand filter is the
process of bank filtration, in which natural sediments in a
riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant
filtration. While typically not clean enough to be used
directly for drinking water, the water gained from the
associated extraction wells is much less problematic than
river water taken directly from the major streams where
bank filtration is often used.
Membrane filtration
Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking
water and sewage. For drinking water, membrane filters can
remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 um—
including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are
an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired
to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic
purposes, or before discharging the water into a river that
is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used
in industry, particularly for beverage preparation
(including bottled water). However no filtration can remove
substances that are actually dissolved in the water such
as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
Removal of ions and other dissolved
substances
Ultra filtration membranes use polymer membranes with
chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to
filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of
coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how
much pressure is needed to drive the water through and
what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.
Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion exchange
resin- or zeolite-packed columns to replace unwanted ions.
The most common case is water softening consisting of
removal of Ca2+and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign
(soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are also
used to remove toxic ions such as
nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.
Precipitate softening: Water rich
in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with
lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to
precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution utilizing
the common-ion effect.
Electro deionization: Water is passed between a
positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion
exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate
from the treated water toward the negative electrode and
only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity
deionised water is produced with a little worse degree of
purification in comparison with ion exchange treatment.
Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electro
dialysis. The water is often pre-treated with a reverse
osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.
Disinfection
Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful
micro-organisms and also by adding disinfectant chemicals.
Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass
through the filters and to provide a residual dose of
disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-
organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible
pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including
Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella,
and protozoa, including Giardia lamblia and
other cryptosporidium. Following the introduction of any
chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in
temporary storage – often called a contact tank or clear
well to allow the disinfecting action to complete.
Chlorine disinfection
The most common disinfection method involves some form
of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramines or chlorine
dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many
harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas,
there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This
problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which
is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases free
chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be
generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A
solid form, calcium hypochlorite, releases chlorine on
contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires
greater routine human contact through opening bags and
pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are
more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium
hypochlorite is both inexpensive and safer than the use of
gas or solid chlorine.
All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their
respective drawbacks. One drawback is that chlorine from
any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the
water to form potentially harmful chemical by-products.
These by-products, trihalomethanes (THMs) and halo acetic
acids (HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities and
are regulated by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the Drinking Water
Inspectorate in the UK. The formation of THMs and halo
acetic acids may be minimized by effective removal of as
many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine
addition. Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it
has limited effectiveness against protozoa that form cysts
in water (Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which
are pathogenic).
Chlorine dioxide disinfection
Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than
elemental chlorine. It is relatively rarely used, because in
some circumstances it may create excessive amounts
of chlorite, which is a by-product regulated to low allowable
levels in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied as
an aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling
problems; chlorine dioxide gas accumulations may
spontaneously detonate.
Ozone disinfection
Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one
atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is
toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong,
broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe.
It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoa
that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other
pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through
ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use
ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and
added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the
advantages of ozone include the production of fewer
dangerous by-products and the absence of taste and odour
problems (in comparison to chlorination) . Although fewer
by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been
discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to
produce concentrations of the suspected
carcinogen bromated. Bromide can be found in fresh water
supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after
ozonation) more than 10 ppb of bromate — the maximum
contaminant level established by the USEPA. Another
advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual disinfectant
in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants
since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was
built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is
applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment,
storage, and processing of foods.
UV disinfection
Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts,
in low turbidity water. UV light's disinfection effectiveness
decreases as turbidity increases, a result of
the absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the
suspended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV
radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual
disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary
disinfection process. This is often done through the
addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary
disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide
an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the
negative effects of chlorination.
Solar water disinfection
One low-cost method of disinfecting water that can often
be implemented with locally available materials is solar
disinfection (SODIS). Unlike methods that rely
on firewood, it has low impact on the environment.
One recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which
would reproduce quickly during subsequent dark storage of
solar-disinfected water could be controlled by the addition
of just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide.
Other water purification techniques
Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local
private supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these
methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies. Particularly
important are distillation (de-salination of seawater) and reverse
osmosis.
1. Boiling: Bringing it to its boiling point at 100 °C (212 °F), is the
oldest and most effective way since it eliminates
most microbes causing intestine related diseases, but it cannot
removechemical toxins or impurities. For human health,
complete sterilization of water is not required, since the heat
resistant microbes are not intestine affecting. The traditional
advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional
safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at
temperatures greater than 60 °C (140 °F). Though the boiling
point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to
affect the disinfecting process. In areas where the water is
"hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts),
boiling decomposes the bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial
precipitation as calcium carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds
up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the
exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher
boiling point than water and in fact increases their
concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling
does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore,
water that is boiled and then stored for any length of time
may acquire new pathogens.
2. Granular Activated Carbon filtering: a form of activated
carbon with a high surface area, adsorbs many compounds
including many toxic compounds. Water passing
through activated carbon is commonly used in municipal regions
with organic contamination, taste or odors. Many household
water filters and fish tanks use activated carbon filters to
further purify the water. Household filters for drinking water
sometimes contain silver as metallic silver nanoparticle. If
water is held in the carbon block for longer period,
microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and
contamination. Silver nanoparticles are excellent anti-bacterial
material and they can decompose toxic halo-organic compounds
such as pesticides into non-toxic organic products.
Demineralised water
Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the
membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration
remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralised
water which is not considered ideal drinking water. The
World Health Organization has investigated the health
effects of demineralized water since 1980. Experiments in
humans found that demineralized water
increased diuresis and the elimination of electrolytes, with
decreasedblood
serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium, and
other minerals in water can help to protect against
nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also
increase the risk from toxic metals because it more readily
leaches materials from piping like lead and cadmium, which
is prevented by dissolved minerals such as calcium and
magnesium. Low-mineral water has been implicated in
specific cases of lead poisoning in infants, when lead from
pipes leached at especially high rates into the water.
Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a
minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium
a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a
total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2 to
4 mmol/L. At water hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher
incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones,
arthrosis, and arthropathies have been
observed. Additionally, desalination processes can increase
the risk of bacterial contamination.
Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the opposite—
that minerals in water are the cause of many diseases, and
that most beneficial minerals come from food, not
water. They quote the American Medical Association as
saying "The body's need for minerals is largely met through
foods, not drinking water." The WHO report agrees that
"drinking water, with some rare exceptions, is not the major
source of essential elements for humans" and is "not the
major source of our calcium and magnesium intake", yet
states that demineralized water is harmful anyway.
"Additional evidence comes from animal experiments and
clinical observations in several countries. Animals given zinc
or magnesium dosed in their drinking water had a
significantly higher concentration of these elements in the
serum than animals given the same elements in much higher
amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water to
drink."
CONCLUSION
We can conclude from the project that there
are various methods of purification of water.
Today, we know that water is present
everywhere on earth in different forms but due
to human activities water is being polluted day
by day not only that about 97% of earths water
is in oceans which is not suitable for drinking or
any other purpose. So there is very small volume
of water is left, to utilise that humans are using
best ways to purify it. And in present time
humans are capable to purify water and all the
methods to purify it are mentioned in the
project.
Save water,save life.....
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WIKIPEDIA
CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL FILE
CHEMISTRY BOOK
CHEMISTRY LAB (for observations and
tests..)
