TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Chapter 1: FINITE CLAUSES
Part one: General introduction 3
Part two: Relative clauses 4
1. Introduction
2. Defining and non-defining relative clauses 6
3. Reduced relative clauses 13
4. Possessives and pronouns with relative clauses 17
5. Prepositions in relative clauses 19
6. Relative clauses with WHERE, WHEN, etc. 21
Further practice 23

Part three: Nominal (Noun) clauses 30

Introduction
1. Noun clauses as subjects and objects 31
2. Noun clauses after nouns 34
3. Noun clauses as subject complements 38
4. Noun clauses as adjectival complements 38
5. The subjunctive or SHOULD in noun clauses 40
Further Practice 41
Part four: Adverb clauses 51
Introduction
1. Time clauses 55
2. Manner clauses 60
3. Comparison clauses 60
4. Reason clauses 62
5. Purpose clauses 64
6. Result clauses 64
7. Contrast clauses 66
8. Conditional clauses 68
9. Reduced adverb clauses 75
Further Practice 78
Production 86
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Chapter 2: NON-FINITE CLAUSES

Part one: General Introduction 89

Part two: Infinitive clauses

1. Use 91

2. Function 95

3. Practice 98

Part three: Gerund clauses

1. Use 102

2. Function 103

3. Practice 104

Part four: Participle clauses

1. Use 107

2. Function 111

3. Practice 114

Further practice 119

Chapter 3: VERBLESS CLAUSES 130

Production 133

SUPLEMENTARY PART: SENTENCE ANALYSIS 136

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CHAPTER ONE: FINITE CLAUSES

PART ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Look at the table and compare how finite, non-finite and verbless clauses are different.

KIND OF Finite clauses Non-finite clauses Verbless clauses

CLAUSE
Adverb - When I was walking - Walking down the street, - Too nervous,
clauses down the street, I saw a I saw a motor accident. the candidate
motor accident. didn’t perform
- Because they didn’t - Having no money, they well.
have any money, they were pushed out. từ nối tính từ

were pushed out. inf clause to inf, bare inf - A man of work,
gerund clause
participle clause he rarely helps
with the
housework.
Noun - Charlie hopes that he - Charlie hopes to have a
clauses will have a job soon. job soon.

- Where you are from is - Living abroad is a great

not important. experience.
Adjectival/ - Do you recognise the - Do you recognise the There was one
Relative man who is smoking? man smoking? seat available on
clauses the flight.
- Charlie, who is admired - Charlie, admired by his
by his classmates, raised classmates, raised his
his hand. hand.

General definitions: Finite, Non-finite, and Verbless Clauses are different kinds of
clauses in which the last 2 are always subordinate clauses. Finite clauses always
contain a tense or mood; non-finite clauses are in the forms of bare infinitive, TO-
infinitive, -ING verb, or past participle; Verbless clauses do not contain a verb though
it is still implied (most Verbless clauses are adverb clauses).

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PART TWO: RELATIVE CLAUSES
Getting started

1. You are going to read three stories about a cat, a dog, and some monkeys. Which
animal(s) do you think, could go in each deadline?
a.… go to prison b/…… eats money c/ …. is hurt by automatic feeder

A Southampton dog lover who rescued a lost dog returned home

to find it had eaten £800 he had saved for a new car.

MOKEYS which annoy people in the northern Indian state

of Punjab are being locked up in a special jail and held
until they are ready for release back into society.

A cat feeder, probably for people who secretly hate their cats, was introduced in 1979.
It was a plastic machine that made feeding the cat a simple job. You put food into the
feeder and it would automatically give it to the cat. Great idea for a pet owner- but not
so great for the cat. The lid of the feeder would often fall down while the cat was
eating and hit it on the nose.

2. Find these words in the texts: who, which and that. Which of these words:
a/ is used for people? …………………
b/ are used for things and animals? …………………

3. Read the spoken version of the dog story and answer the question.
‘There was this man that loved animals, and one day he found a dog wandering around
in the street and he took him home with him. He left the dog in his house while he
went out shopping and when he came home he had a bit of a shock. The stupid dog
had eaten £800 that he had been saving to buy a new car!’
Can that be used for things and people? …………..

4. Using the answers to 2 and 3 above, complete this sentence:

a/ …………….. and b/ ………….. can be used to describe people, and c/ ……….. and
d/ …………….. can be used to refer to things and animals.

Relative clauses are also named adjectival clauses because their function is to qualify
a noun/ noun phrase.

1. Introduction
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Relative clauses are usually introduced by relative pronouns such as THAT, WHO or
WHICH … and are used to provide information about someone or something just
mentioned. We can use relative clauses to identify people (I’ve just seen the woman
who lives upstairs), describe things (She’s climbing up a ladder that wobbles with
every gust of wind) and add comments (I think she’s going to clean her windows,
which seems rather dangerous in the circumstances). We can sometimes use a
relative clause with no relative pronoun (The town we visited on that rainy day was
just formidable).

1.1 Relative clauses/ Adjectival clauses

We use a relative clause to give more information about a noun phrase in a preceding
clause. Instead of repeating the subject noun phrase, we can use a relative pronoun
(who, which):
1. I have a friend. The friend OR He lives in London.  I have a friend who lives
in London.
2. We found a shop. The shop OR It sold old records.  We found a shop which
sold old records.

When we use a relative pronoun instead of an object noun or pronoun, we put the
relative pronoun at the beginning of the relative clause. We don’t repeat the noun or
pronoun.
3. I loved the card. You sent it.
 I loved the card that you sent. (NOT ... that you sent it.)
4. He’s one man. I admire him.
 He’s one man whom I admire. (NOT ...whom I admire him.)

We usually try to put relative clauses immediately after the noun phrases they describe
(5), but we can include a preposition phrase between the noun phrase and the relative
clause (6).
5. The food came in plastic bags. We had to eat the food.
 The food that we had to eat came in plastic bags.
(NOT: The food came in plastic bags that we had to eat.)
6. A pirate is a person on a ship who attacks and steals from other ships.

1.2 Relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that

We use who and whom when we are talking about people. We can use who as the
subject of a relative clause (7) and whom as the object (8). Whom is formal. In
informal situations, we can use who as the object or, more usually, we leave out the
relative pronoun (9).
7. Michael is a teacher. He works in Dublin.
 Michael is a teacher who works in Dublin.

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 8. The person wasn’t Michael. You met him.
 The person whom you met wasn’t Michael.
9. The person who you met wasn’t Michael./The person _ you met wasn’t Michael.

We can use whom after prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause in formal
situations. In informal situations, we can put the preposition after the verb and use who
at the beginning or, more usually, we leave out the relative pronoun.
10. The man is Joe. You should talk to him.
 The man to whom you should talk is Joe!
The man who you should talk to is Joe Nash./The man _ you should talk to is Joe.

We use which and that for things or animals (11) and after group nouns such as team
for a group of people we are thinking of as a single unit (12). Which is more formal. In
informal situations, we sometimes use that instead of who/whom for people (13).
11. They own a cat. The cat doesn’t have a tail.
 They own a cat which/that doesn’t have a tail.
12. We were in the team. The team won the cup.
 We were in the team which/that won the cup.
13. The woman is a nurse. She lives next door.
 The woman that lives next door is a nurse.
We can use which after prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause in formal
situations. In informal situations, we put the preposition after the verb and use that at
the beginning of the relative clause or, more usually, we leave out the relative
pronoun.
14. I can’t remember the hotel. We stayed in the hotel.
 I can’t remember the hotel in which we stayed. / I can’t remember the hotel
(that) we stayed in.
(NOT ... the hotel we stayed in it.)

2. Defining and non-defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses
In a defining relative clause, we include information that identifies or classifies people
(1) and things (2). The meaning of the sentence is not complete without the defining
relative clause.
1. Do you remember the woman who used to work in the bookshop?
2. Do you have a thing that measures temperature?~ You mean a thermometer?
Sorry, I don’t.

We often use that at the beginning of a defining relative clause instead of the object
(3) or the object of a preposition (4). We usually use (that) after noun phrases
containing superlatives (5) or quantifiers (6).

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 3. I brought the dictionary. Maria wanted it.
 I brought the dictionary (that) Mary wanted.
4. The film is ‘Twins’. He’s talking about it.
 The film (that) he’s talking about is ‘Twins’.
5. It’s the best film (that) I’ve seen in years.
He was the worst teacher (that) I had at school.
6. There’s a lot (that) I don’t know about computers.
Every person (that) we met had a cold.

We can also begin defining relative clauses with who, whom and which.
7. I don’t know anyone who/whom I can trust.
There are two rules which you must always obey.

Non- defining relative clauses

When we want to include essential information, we use a defining relative clause (8).
When we are simply adding extra information, we use a non-defining relative clause
(9). We usually put a comma before a non-defining clause and a comma after it, unless
it is the end of the sentence.
8. The first caller who can give the correct answer will win the prize.
9. The first caller, who was from the London area, didn’t give the correct
answer.

We can also use brackets or dashes: The second caller (who sounded Scoff ish) got it
right.
We usually use who, whom or which at the beginning of non-defining relative clause
(10). We don’t usually begin non-defining relative clauses with that or without a
relative pronoun.
10. Our new boss, who seems to be nice, has said nothing about Mr Bell, whom
he replaced.
11. The Mini, which some people initially laughed at, soon became the most
popular car.
(NOT The Mini, (that) some people initially laughed at, soon became the most
popular car.)
We can use non-defining relative clauses with which to add comments about the
preceding statement (12). We also use which in preposition phrases such as in which
case at the beginning of non-defining relative clauses used to add comments (13).
12. They said Catherine had been in prison, which simply wasn’t true.
13. There may be a strike, in which case the office will remain closed.

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In non-defining relative clauses we can use of which and of whom after quantifiers or
superlatives such as the most famous (15). We do this when we want to add
information about part of something or about an individual from a group already
mentioned.
14. The last lecture, some of which I just didn’t understand, was about osmosis.
15. At the conference, there were several writers, the most famous of whom was
Paul Theroux.
We can also put superlatives after the relative pronoun:
At the conference, there were several writers, of whom the most famous was
Paul Theroux.
PRACTICE 1
Read the text about Bill Gates, his company, Microsoft, and his house in
Seattle. There are gaps in the text. Fill the gaps with a clause below. Write a
number 1-16.
1. discussing the plots and swapping
opinions
2. why Microsoft has been so successful
3. he fancied
4. of which he owns 39% of the shares
5. whose software is used
6. estimated at $18 billion
7. overlooking Lake Washington
8. he can’t afford
9. leaving his wife behind
10. what to do
11. that he’s packed with high-tech gadgetry
12. that can be run by clicking on icons
13. encoded with their personal preferences
14. who is now a very successful
businesswoman
15. that allows him
16. which put him among the top ten
students

The man who could buy anything

Bill Gates is the richest private citizen in the world. There is nothing (a)….. Every
morning, when his alarm clock goes off, the software tycoon is $20 million richer
than when he went to bed. His wealth is based on his company, Microsoft (b) …..He

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has a personal fortune (c) ….., which is more than the annual economic output of
over hundred countries.

He is not shy about spending it. He has

built a mansion (d) ….. (e) ….. and TV
monitors, some taking up an entire wall.
Visitors are given a smart card (f) …..,
so that, as they wander from room to
room, their favourite pictures will
appear on the screens, and the music
they like will play. The card is
programmed so that only the most
intimate friends can open all the doors.

This cold-blooded approach to human

relationships also seems to be true of his
love life. When he went out with an ex- Gates went on to Harvard University, where
girlfriend, Ann Winblad, (g) ….., the he managed to be in the same class as the
couple conducted much of their girls (l) ….. by inserting a piece of software
relationship by going on virtual dates. into the college computer. But he never
Each would drive alone to the same finished college. When he left, he knew
movie at the same time in different exactly (m) ….. He started up his own
towns, and then talk about it afterwards computer company.
on their mobiles, (h).… When finally he The reason (n)…. is because Gates saw that
got married, he and his wife, Melinda, his fortune lay in software, not hardware. He
signed a prenuptial agreement (i) …..to became a billionaire at 31, and since then
go on an annual holiday with his ex- Microsoft has created Windows, which is a
lover, Ann, (j) ….. system (o)…. with a mouse.
Gates has been called ‘King of the Now the multi-billionaire, (p)….. in two-
Nerds’ but this simply isn’t fair. In the thirds of the world’s computer, is developing
ninth grade at school, he got A’s in all the HPC, or hand-held personal computer. It
the subjects he took, (k) ….. in the is his intention that there should be a
nation. computer in the pocket of everybody in the
whole world.

QUESTIONS:
1. When do we use the relative pronouns who, that, whose and which?
2. Find examples in the text of when English uses no relative pronoun.

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1. In the article about Bill Gates, find the four relative clauses beginning with which,
and decide whether they are defining or non-defining.
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………
2. Underline the best word or words, then identufy the name and function of each
relative/adjective clause.
a. The historic castle, which/ what was rebuilt after the war, contains the city museum.
b. What/ Whatever I would like to do next is go and visit the Modern Art Gallery.
c. I didn’t know exactly whom/ who I was working with on the project.
d. You may tick the “No Publicity” box, in that/ which case no details of your win will
be given to the press.
e. I’ve never seen anyone who/ which can kick a ball as hard as David can!
f. I’m afraid this isn’t the meal whom I asked for/ I asked for.
g. Can someone tell me that/ what I am supposed to be doing?
h. Brussels, that/ which I’ve visited several times recently, is a good place to spend a
weekend.
i. After eating so much I felt sick, that/ which wasn’t so surprising!
j. The police asked me if I had seen anyone who/ which fitted the description.
3. Complete the sentence with the correct word.
a. Many Asians live in mega-cities, that is, cities whose population is greater than 10
million.
b. Tony, …… brother Dave also played for Scotland, eventually became team captain.
c. I’m a sort of person ………….. likes being busy all the time.
d. We looked at three flats to let, one of …………… seemed suitable, though it was
expensive.
e. Elsa seemed like the kind of person to ………….. happiness came almost naturally.
f. This e-mail is intended solely for the use of the person to ………….. it is addressed.
g. It was a mistake ………… both generals were to regret before the day was over.
h. The buildings ………….. were damaged in the earthquake were marked with a red
cross.
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i. Sophia lived alone in a house owned by her father, for ………….. she paid no rent.
j. That’s building ………….. I used to work.
4. Add one set of relative pronouns to each description. Which one could be left out?
that / which / who (x2) / whom that (x2) / which / who (x2)
Laurel and Hardy were a pair of comedy actors (I) ………………………made over 100
films from 1926 to 1940. Stan Laurel, (2) ………………………was born in Britain, and
Oliver Hardy, an American, were first successful in silent films and were famous
for their slapstick style of comedy. In their films, Laurel often caused the many
accidents (3) ………………………happened to them both, after (4)
………………………Hardy would get angry and say, ‘This is another fine mess (5)
……………………… you’ve gotten me into.’
A Jekyll and Hyde is a person (6) ………………………. has two personalities, one of (7)
………………………is bad and the other good. The expression comes from a novel
about Dr Jekyll, (8) ………………………investigates the good and evil parts of human
nature and invents a drug (9) ………………………can separate them. When he takes
the drug, he becomes an evil version of himself, (1O) ……………………… he calls Mr
Hyde.

5. Add one of these clauses to each of the sentences below. Use relative pronouns
and make other appropriate changes. Add commas where necessary.
he or she controls a sports game
most people know him as Mark Twain
some of them are poisonous
it uses exaggerated actions, often involving accidents
it consists of nine islands
the largest part of it is below the surface of the water
you rent a room or a flat from him
he has never been married √
each competitor takes part in three different sports in it

Example: A bachelor is a man who has never been married.

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1. Slapstick is a type of comedy ……………………………………………………
2. A referee is an official ...…………………………………………………………
3. A triathlon is a sports event ………………………………………………………...
4. A landlord is a person ………………………………………………………………
5. An iceberg ……………………………………………………………….. is a solid
mass of ice floating in the ocean.
6. Snakes ………………………………………………..are long reptiles without legs.
7. Tuvalu …………………….….…………………… is a country in the south Pacific.
8. Samuel Clemens ………………………………………………..was a major
American writer.

6. Write a new sentence with the same meaning, containing the word in capitals.
a. This man jumped over the counter and took the money. WHO
This is ……………………………………………………………………………….
b. It wasn’t unusual for George to turn up late. WHICH
George turned ………………………………………………………………………..
c. Some of the many people we questioned gave us good descriptions of the robbers.
WHOM
We questioned …………………………………………………………………………
d. My aunt and uncle live in that house. WHERE
That’s ………………………………………………………………………………….
e. Everyone likes Angela when they meet her. WHO
Everyone ……………………………………………………………………………….
f. Many people came to the meeting but some were half an hour late. WHOM
Many people came to the meeting, some ………………………………………………
g. We sheltered from the rain in a shepherd’s hut that we found eventually. WHERE
We eventually …………………………………………………………………………..
h. The train was extremely crowded and stopped at every station. WHICH
The train, ………………………………………………………………………………..

7. Complete the text with one in each gap, or leave blank where possible.
JANE AUSTEN
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Jane Austen, a whose novels of features many clergymen, had two brothers b…………..
joined the church, and two others c ………….. careers in the navy are also reflected in
her novels, in d …………… several navy officers appear. She also had a sister,
Cassandra, with e……………. she had a close relationship. They exchanged frequent
letters, from f …………. historians have learnt much about g ………….Jane was doing
and thinking during a life h ……… was fairly uneventful. All i…………… we know of
Jane Austen’s appearance is based on Cassandra’s coloured sketch j………… hanging
in the National Portrait Gallery in London. We know Jane was encouraged to write by
her brother Henry, k………….. also wrote himself, and that the family borrowed novels
from the local, l………… influenced Jane’s writing. Although Jane Austen wrote during
the period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, m………….. she wrote
about was largely confined to n………….. she knew: the manners of mainly well- off
people o……….. living in a small-town society near London, and the problems
p………….. have chosen the wrong partner, or those r………….. difficult financial
situation influences their behavior.

8. Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of relative clauses in this text.
that
A strange thing λ happened to me once was getting a letter said I had been ‘terminated.’

The letter, that came from the university, was an official notice of termination (means

‘the end’) of employment. It was like being fired from my job, which it felt really weird.

I didn’t have a job at the university that I could be fired from it! I was just a student

didn’t have a job. When I called the office, they said it was an error had been caused by

a new computer. I wasn’t the only one had been terminated by that computer. A lot of

other people didn’t have jobs at the university lost them that day.

3. Reduced relative clauses

A relative clause formed with a participle and no relative pronoun is called a
reduced relative clause. We use present participles (1) and past participles (2). These
clauses are also called non-finite clauses. (See more in Chapter 2)
1. There are two students who are waiting outside.
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  There are two students waiting outside.
2. The strawberries which had been dipped in chocolate were really delicious!
 The strawberries dipped in chocolate were really delicious!
We use a present participle in place of an active verb (3) and a past participle in place
of a passive verb (4).
3. There were teachers who were shouting and children who were running out of
the building.
 There were teachers shouting and children running out of the building.
4. Debbie only drinks juice that is made from fresh fruit that is grown
organically.
 Debbie only drinks juice made from fresh fruit grown organically.
We can use participles instead of verbs referring to the past, present or future.
5. The winner is the person who scored/scores/will score the most points in the
game.
 The winner is the person scoring the most points in the game.
6. First prize is for the most points which were scored/are scored/will be scored
in the game.
 First prize is for the most points scored in the game.

We can use a participle from a simple passive to describe a general situation (7), a
continuous passive to emphasize that a situation is continuing (8) or a perfect passive
to emphasize that a situation has continued from an earlier time (9).
7. We are concerned about people held in prison without a trial. (= who are held)
8. We are concerned about people being held in prison without a trial.
(= who are being held)
9. We are concerned about people having been held in prison for years.
(= who have been held)
Participles can also be used in non-defining relative clauses, usually in written
descriptions and narratives.
10. The old car, trailing black smoke, drove off towards town.
(= which was trailing smoke)
Robert Ball, nicknamed ‘Big Bob’, was my favourite teacher.
(= who was nicknamed)

We put NOT before the participle in negative reduced relative clauses.

11. My parents, not having much money, never went on holiday.
(= who didn’t have)
12. I’d prefer shirts not made with polyester if you have any.
(= which aren’t made)
We don’t use a participle instead of a verb that describes a single or sudden action (13)
or a verb with a subject that is different from the relative pronoun (14).
13. There was a sudden bang that woke me up. (NOT There was a sudden bang
14
 waking me up.)
14. There are several things that we need from the shop.(NOT There are several
things needing..)
This isn’t the information that I was given before. (NOT This isn’t the
information given…..)
We usually use an infinitive, not a participle, after a noun preceded by the adjectives
next, last, the only, etc., after ordinal numbers first, second, etc. (15), or after
superlatives (16).
15. Neil Armstrong was the first person to walk on the moon. (= who walked on
the
moon)
(NOT Neil Armstrong was the first person walking on the moon.)
16. Nick is the most suitable person to be appointed as Monitor.
(NOT … a person appointed as…)

PRACTICE 2

1. Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these definitions with the nouns and
of the verbs in reduced relative clauses.
jigsaw mermaid cause have send work
memo shadow cut print stand

1. A…………………. is a written note ………………….between people

………………….in the same organization.
2. A ………………….is an imaginary creature ………………….the body of a woman
but a fish’s tail instead of legs.
3. A ………………….is a picture ………………….on cardboard or wood and
……………….into various shapes that have to be fitted together again.
4. A ………………….is a dark area on a surface ………………….by an object
……………….between direct light and that surface.

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2. Change each of these clauses to a reduced relative clause and write it in one of
the spaces below.
it was standing on the bed they are sitting in it
it is based on a true story they didn’t have children
it is parked outside they went out to concerts and the theatre
it was covered with feathers they were accused of crimes
it starts at 8p.m. they were committed during the war

1. There’s a black car ………………………………………………………………with

two policemen ………………………………………………………………
2. I found the puppy ………………………………………………………………and
………………… ………………………………………from one of the pillows that
it had ripped open.
3. The film ………………………………………………………………is a drama
…………………… …………………………………………
4. Many people ……………………………………………………………had to be set
free because no witnesses could be found to testify against them.
5. We envied the Andersons. Paul and Marjorie Anderson, ………………………….,
were free to spend more of their time ………………………………………………

3. Make this text shorter by creating reduced relative clauses where possible.

For all you food-lovers who will be sitting at home and who will be looking for
something that is interesting on TV this afternoon, there’s a fabulous new show
which is called ‘The Asian Kitchen’, which has been created and which has been
produced by Mary Sah, which begins at 4.30 this afternoon. Among the dishes
which will be featured will be Saucy Tofu, which consists of tofu squares which
have been dipped in a special batter, which have been deep-fried and which have
been covered in a creamy peanut sauce, and Evil Shrimp, which is made with hot
peppers which have been sautéed with other vegetables, and, which are served
with shrimp which are sizzling in a shallow pool of red curry. It’s the most delicious
thing on TV today!
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………...…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………...…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………...……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….............................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................

4. Possessives and pronouns with relative clauses

4.1 Possessives with relative clauses
Write the numbers of appropriate examples in the spaces
We use whose instead of possessive determiners such as his before nouns. We usually
use whose to refer to people………..., but it can also be used after nouns for
organizations and places…………
1. Is he the boy? His bag was stolen.  Is he the boy whose bag was stolen?
(NOT who his bag)
2. Napa is in a region whose wines are famous.
Come to Jamaica, whose people welcome you.
3. Delco is a company whose products are everywhere.
That’s the club whose coach was fired.

We can also use whose to talk about things that are part of ………… or belong to
other things.
4. Draw a circle. Its radius is one inch  Draw a circle whose radius is one inch.
5. They live in a small town whose name I’ve forgotten.
(NOT …a small town which name)

Instead of whose before a noun, we can use of which after a noun when we talk about
things ………… In informal uses, we can put which or that at the beginning and the
noun plus of at the end…………
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 6. They live in a small town which/that I’ve forgotten the name of.
7. It’s a small town, the name of which I’ve forgotten.
Draw a circle, the radius of which is one inch.
In formal uses, of which is sometimes before the noun:
Draw a circle, of which the radius is….

4.2 Pronouns with relative clauses

We can use relative clauses after personal pronouns ………… and indefinite pronouns
…………
8. Do you know anyone who has a van?
There must be something (that) we can do about the cold.
9. She insists that it’s you who must apologize.
~ But it wasn’t me who broke the window.

The use of subject pronouns sounds very formal: It wasn’t I who broke the window.
We can also use the pronoun those (not these) with who, which, that or reduced
relative clauses.
10. Those who know him well say he will fight.
Ask those (who are) waiting outside to come in.

His ideas are similar to those (which/that) we’ve heard before.

(NOT similar to which….)
Organic vegetables are those (which/that have been) grown without the use of
chemicals.

We can use quantifiers as pronouns followed by who or that …………. We can also
leave out the relative pronoun or use a reduced relative clause after quantifiers
…………
11. We saw some (that) we liked in Italy.
I didn’t find a lot (that was) written about Jeffreys.
12. There aren’t many who like her.
There isn’t much that he misses. (NOT much which)

18
 PRACTICE 3
Add these clauses, with appropriate changes, to the sentences below.

his or her parents are dead they have completed their questionnaires
the wood of it is strong and durable large flags were hanging from its upper
windows
this person doesn’t care about money many of his paintings look like large
comic strips
1. An orphan is a child
……………………………………………………………………….…………………..
2. Have you ever met anyone
………………………………………………………………………………………..?
3. The oak is a kind of tree
………………………………………………………………….……………………….
4. We passed an old palace
………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Those.………………………………………………………….. should hand them in.
6. Roy Lichtenstein, …………………………………………., helped establish pop art.

5. Prepositions in relative clauses

We can use prepositions at the beginning or the end of relative clauses. We usually put
prepositions at the end in informal situations
1. This is the room. I work in it.
 This is the room in which I work OR the room that I work in.

When we put prepositions at the end, we usually use that (2) or no relative pronoun (3)
at the beginning. In formal situations, we can include which, who and whom at the
beginning (4).
2. Cook’s was the shop that everybody went to for shoes.
There were bunk beds that we slept in.
3. Your opponent is the person _ you play against.
The day _I’d been waiting for soon arrived.
4. Camden is the area (which) I grew up in.
Is he the boy (who/whom) you were telling us about?

19
We always put the preposition at the end after a phrasal verb in a relative clause.
5. There are things (which) he’s had to cut back on.
(NOT ... things on which he’s had to cut back)
He is a person (who/whom) I’ve always looked up to.
(NOT ... a person to whom I’ve looked up.)

When we put prepositions at the beginning of a relative clause, we use which (not
that) (6) or whom (not who) (7).
6. A clothes horse is a frame on which clothes are hung to dry.
(NOT ... a frame on that clothes ...)
7. A lot will be expected from people to whom a lot is given.
(NOT ... people to who a lot is given.)
There are some prepositions which we only use at the beginning (not the end) of
relative clauses.
8. The mid-nineteenth century was a period during which many people left
Ireland.
(NOT . . . a period which many people left Ireland during)

Others used like this include: AFTER, BECAUSE OF, BEFORE, BELOW,
BESIDES

PRACTICE 4
1. Add these clauses, with appropriate changes, to the sentences below.
you look through it
you must complete something before it
you look up to him or her
you have promised to be responsible for his or her moral education

1. A deadline is a point in time

……………………………………………………………
2. Your godchild is a child
…………………………………………………………………
3. A role model is a person
…………………………………………………………………

20
4. A telescope is a piece of equipment
……………………………………………………. to see things that are far away.

2. Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of relative clauses in this text.
which
The saying for that I had to find the meaning was: ‘People who live in glass houses
shouldn’t throw stones’. My first guess was that it was about a situation which those
want to fight should first think about defending themselves from attack. Obviously, a
person who the house is made of glass, it’s something is easily broken, should be careful.
If you throw a stone, the person you threw the stone at him could throw it back and
smash your house. However, this saying, the meaning of it I looked up in the Oxford
Dictionary of English Idioms, is not really about fighting. It means that you should not
criticize others for faults similar to you have yourself. I think this is good advice for
anyone is critical of other people.

6. Relative clauses with WHERE, WHEN, etc.

We can use where instead of in which, at which, etc. after nouns for places (1) and
after nouns such as point and stage (2). More figuratively, we can use where after
nouns like situation (3).
1. There’s a small box. I keep keys in it.  There’s a small box where/in which I
keep keys.
2. We have reached a stage where we now have more people applying than we have
space for.
3. Women are better in situations where strategy is more important than strength.
Other nouns used like this include: ACTIVITY, CASE, EXAMPLE, EXPERIENCE,
SOCIETY

We can use when instead of at which, during which, etc. after nouns referring to time.
4. Do you have a moment when we can talk? That was a period when everything
was fine.

We don’t use when after each/every time: That happens each/every time (that) it rains.

21
Uses of WHAT
We can use what, meaning ‘the thing(s) that’, at the beginning of relative clauses used
as object (7) or subject nominal clauses (8).
7. She gave them the things that she had (adjectival clause).
 She gave them what she had (object nominal clause).
8. What they’re doing seems wrong. (subject nominal clause)

We don’t use what after quantifiers (9) or after nouns or pronouns (10).
9. Some people lost all (that) they had invested.
(NOT They lost all what they had invested.)
10. We’ll buy the food and everything (that) we need later (adjectival clause)
OR We’ll buy what we need later. (object nominal clause).

PRACTICE 5

1. Complete this email message with HOW (X2), WHAT, WHEN, WHERE and
WHY.
Do you have a minute or two this morning (1) …………………… we can talk? I’m at
a point (2) …………………… I need to check with you about (3) ……………………
I should organize the report and (4) …………………… I should include or leave out.
If you agree with (5) ……………………I’m planning to organize it, then there’s no
reason (6) ………………..we can’t have it finished by Friday.

2. Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these definitions with the following

words.
crime prison revenge that when which
motive quarantine what where why

1. ………………….. is a place …………… people are kept as punishment for crimes.

2. A …………………………..is an explanation of …………………someone acts in a
particular way.
3. A …………………..is an offence for ………………you may be punished by law.
4. …………………………..is deliberate punishment or
injury………………………….. is inflicted in return
for…………………………..someone has suffered.
5. ………………………….. is a period …………………………..an animal or person
is kept away from others in order to prevent the possible spread of disease.
22
 FURTHER PRACTICE ON RELATIVE CLAUSES
1. Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence. Change the second sentence
of the pair into a reduced relative clause.
1. Our solar system is in a galaxy. The galaxy is called the Milky Way.
Our solar system which is called the Milky Way is in galaxy -> Relative clause, qualifying "our solar system"
…………………………………………………………………………….
Finite clause
2. I come from a city. This city is located in the southern part of the country.
…………………………………………………………………………….
3. Anyone must take an entrance examination. Anyone applies to that school.
…………………………………………………………………………….
4. The boy drew pictures of people at the airport. The people were waiting for their
planes.
…………………………………………………………………………….
5. Sunlight wakes me up early in the morning. It comes through the window.
…………………………………………………………………………….
6. Only a few of the movies are suitable for the children. The movies are shown on
Channel 9.
…………………………………………………………………………….
7. I was awakened by the sound of the laughter. It comes from the room next door to
mine.
…………………………………………………………………………….
8. The students have become quite proficient in their new language. They attend class
five hours per day.
…………………………………………………………………………….
9. Disney World is a famous amusement park. It is located in Orlando, Florida, USA,
and covers a large area of land.
…………………………………………………………………………….
10. Do you know the policeman? He is coming toward us.
…………………………………………………………………………….
2. Combine these sentences using THAT, WHICH, WHO, WHOM or WHOSE
11. A woman answered the phone. She told me you were busy.
…………………………………………………………………………….

23
12. The bus is always crowded. I take it to school every morning.
…………………………………………………………………………….
13. They are singing a song. I don’t know the song.
 ……………………………………………………………………………
14. A man spoke to me. He was very helpful.
…………………………………………………………………………….
15. A midwife is a woman. She assists other women in childbirth.
…………………………………………………………………………….
16. They are the children. Their team won the match.
…………………………………………………………………………….
17. The house is for sale. It has the green shutters.
…………………………………………………………………………….
18. My father bought a motor bike. The motorbike costs thousand dollars
…………………………………………………………………………….
19. They are the postcards. I sent them from Australia.
…………………………………………………………………………….
20. The house has been built in the forest. It doesn’t have electricity
…………………………………………………………………………….

3. Combine sentences using WHERE, WHERE, WHEN or WHICH

21. Manchester is the largest city in USA. My brother lives there.
…………………………………………………………………………….
22. I’ve recently gone back to the town. I was born in the town.
…………………………………………………………………………….
23. Do you know the name of the hotel ? John is staying at the hotel.
…………………………………………………………………………….
24. We enjoy the city. We spent our vacation there.
…………………………………………………………………………….
25. We enjoy this city. It has been renewed a lot after the war.

24
…………………………………………………………………………….
26. 15th June is the day. I was born on that day.
…………………………………………………………………………….
27. This is the house. The house has a big garden.
…………………………………………………………………………….
28. This is the house. I was born in the house.
…………………………………………………………………………….
29. May Day is the day. People hold a meeting on that day.
…………………………………………………………………………….
30. We have not decided the day. I’ll go to London on that day.
…………………………………………………………………………….
4. Rewrite the following sentences, using reduced relative clauses.
31. The children who attend that school receive a good education.
……………………………………………………………………………
32. The scientists who are researching the causes of cancer are making progress.
 …………………………………………………………………………
33. They live in a house that was built in
…………………………………………………………………………….
34. We have an apartment which overlooks the park.
…………………………………………………………………………….
35. Yuri Gagarin became the first man who flew into space.
…………………………………………………………………………….
36. We stood on the bridge which connects the two halves of the building.
…………………………………………………………………………….
37. I come from a city which is located in the southern part of the country
…………………………………………………………………………….
38. The vegetables which are sold in this supermarket are grown without chemicals.
…………………………………………………………………………….
39. Do you know the woman who is coming toward us?
…………………………………………………………………………….
40. The people who were waiting for the bus in the rain are getting wet.
…………………………………………………………………………….
25
41. I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country.
…………………………………………………………………………….
42. They live in a house that was built in
…………………………………………………………………………….
43. He was the first man who left the burning building.
…………………………………………………………………………….
44. The couple who live in the house next door are both college professors
……………………………………………………………………………
45. The people who are waiting for the bus in the rain are getting wet.
……………………………………………………………………………
46. The students who did not come to the class yesterday explain their absence to the
teacher.
…………………………………………………………………………….
47. Did you get the message which concerned the special meeting?
…………………………………………………………………………….
[Link] is the second student who entered the classroom this morning.
…………………………………………………………………………….
49. The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries.
…………………………………………………………………………….
50. He was the only man who reached the top.
…………………………………………………………………………….
5. Combine these sentences into one, using a defining or non-defining relative
clause. Be careful with punctuations.
1. It’s very cloudy. This means that it might rain soon
 It’s very.......................................................................................................
2. Do you see that cloud? I mean the one that looks like an ice cream cone.
 Do you see ................................................................................................
3. I heard the news. By the way, it was announced yesterday
 I heard .......................................................................................................
4. I heard the news. I mean the news announced yesterday
 I heard .......................................................................................................

26
 5. Some students don’t read much. They will not learn English as well as other
students.
 Some students ............................................................................................
6. I’m not talking about one girl. She told me she loves me.
 I’m not talking about the girl ....................................................................
7. I’m talking about another girl. She can’t stand me.
 I’m not talking about the girl ....................................................................
8. Mary, this is Bill. He is joining our class next week
 Mary, this is Bill ........................................................................................
9. A school bag is in the teacher’s office. Is that your school bag?
 Is that your ................................................................................................
10. In July Ford developed his Model T car. It sold for $ 45,000.
 In ...............................................................................................................

6. Choose the correct answer.

1. Were the Wright brothers the ones __________built the first aeroplane?
A. which B. whom C. whose D. that
2. I don't like stories________ have unhappy endings.
A. where B. which C. they D. who
3. The periodic table contains all the elements, ________ has a particular
atomic weight and atomic number.
A. which of each B. each of which C. which each D. each
4. Ansel Adams was a landscape photographer ________ photographs of the
western United States show nature on a grand scale.
A. whose B. of whom C. of his D. his
5. Jan didn't check she had enough petrol before she left, ____ was careless
of her.
A. what B. it C. that D. which
6. This is a town ________ many people live.
A. in which B. which C. at which D. on which
7. She, ________ is your sister, lives far away.
A. which B. who C. whom D. she
8. I see some girls ________ are pretty.
A. whom B. which C. who D. they
9. Give back the money ________ you took.
A. it B. who C. whom D. which
10. He was killed by a man ________ friends we know.
A. whose B. which C. whom D. that
11. He spoke to the messengers with ________ you were leaving.
A. which B. whom C. whose D. that
27
12. We captured a town ________ is in Spain.
A. whom B. where C. which D. it
13. The farmers ________ we saw were in the field.
A. whose B. which C. they D. whom
14. The women ________ I gave the money were glad.
A. to whom B. to that C. for whom D. for that
15. I know a boy whose name is John.
A. who B. whose C. whom D. that

16. The man whom you sent to the general has reported the victory.
A. whose B. which C. whom D. he
17. I saw those slaves ________ had been led to the city.
A. whose B. which C. whom D. who
18. The people ________ courage you praised are now citizens.
A. whose B. which C. whom D. that
19. You folks ________ live in farmhouses do not like the life of the city.
A. whose B. who C. they D. which
20. Those towns ________ you were looking at in Gaul are small.
A. who B. where C. which D. whom
21. In Helvetia I have seen a large city ________ many people live.
A. at which B. which C. on which D. in which
22. He ________ is not my friend is my enemy.
A. who B. which C. whom D. A&B
23. I sent my friend the books ________ I had written.
A. who B. which C. whom D. what
24. Behind the farmhouse there was a large garden, ________ the farmer
and his sons were working.
A. for which B. which C. in which D. that
25. Did you see the men to whom I gave the money?
A. to who B. which C. from whom D. to that
26. She sends me the book________ she________ two years ago.
A. whom / writes B. whose /wrote C. which/ writes D. which / wrote
27. The man ________ spoke to John is my brother.
A. whom B. who C. whose D. which
28. I must thank the man from _____ I got the present.
A. who B. whom C. that D. which
29. It is a car ______ I bought last year.
A. whom B. who C. which D. whose
30. He is the man _______ son is a doctor
A. whom B. which C. who D. whose
31. The woman _______next door is a famous singer.
A. lives B. who live C. living D. that living
32. The house ______ in the storm has now been rebuilt.
A. destroyed B. destroying C. which destroyed D. that is destroyed
33. The man ______ at the blackboard is our teacher.
A. stood B. stands C. standing D. to stand
34. Tom was the last ______the classroom yesterday.
A. to leave B. leaving C. left D. leaves
28
35. Linda was the last student ______ at the oral exam.
A. to be asked B. asking C. asks D. to ask
36. The bridge _____ by French architects is very nice.
A. was designed B. designing C. to design D. designed
37. The problems ______they are discussing at the meeting are very important.
A. who B. which C. Ø D. both B and C
38. Michael told me about students _______have just got the scholarship.
A. which B. Ø C. who D. whose

39. The ring ______ is made of gold and diamond.

A. she is wearing it B. he gave it to her
C. Linda likes it D. she is wearing

29
PART THREE: NOUN CLAUSES (NOMINAL CLAUSES)
Introduction
A dependent clause that functions as a noun (that is, as a subject, object, or
complement) within a sentence are known as a nominal, or noun clause. Two common
types of noun clause in English are that-clauses and wh-clauses.

Read the following story and underline all the noun clauses that you can find.

THEFT OCCURS EVERYWHERE

An elderly woman told the police that, as she entered a restroom, she was jostled
by a woman behind her. A few minutes later, as she was about to pay for a moustache
remover at a nearby store, she discovered that her wallet was missing from her purse.
Apparently the woman who had bumped into her had cleverly stolen her wallet. This
type of theft is called pick-pocketing.

Perhaps an even more personal kind of theft is known as housebreaking, or

burglary. After such an intrusion, the victims often report a feeling of violation. They
seldom regain the comfort and security level they used to have in their home. They
constantly feel like they are being watched; they feel that if they go out, the burglars
will again come in. They feel uncomfortable when they are home, and they feel
uncomfortable when they aren't home.

Thieves have no shame. They will steal from anyone that they think is vulnerable.
Of course, that means the elderly are their frequent victims. Some thieves are very
clever; some are very lucky. All of them make an honest person's life more difficult.
It's too bad that all of them can't be caught and converted into honest people.

Imagine that: a world with no larceny, a world where you can park your bicycle
unsecured on the sidewalk, or leave your purse unattended in your shopping cart. Is
this only a dream? Some say that if you can dream about it, it can happen.

- Find the that-clauses in the story.

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

- Find the WH-clauses in the story

……………………………………………………………………………………
30
 ……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
- Why do you think they are noun clauses?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
- What are some functions of noun clauses?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

1. Noun clauses as subjects and objects

Noun clauses as subjects or after empty subject IT
We can use a noun clause beginning with that (= ‘the fact that’) (1.) or a wh-word (2)
as the subject before a verb, but usually only in formal situations.
1. That we won the match surprised everyone. -> Finite clause, noun clause, real subject of verb of
surprised
That the other team played badly really helped us.
2. How the thieves broke in is obvious, but why they only took one old computer
is a mystery.

Instead of putting the noun clause in subject position, we usually use IT as an empty
subject and put the that-clause (3) or the wh-clause (4) at the end.
3. It surprised everyone that we won the match. (‘that we won the match’ is the
real subject)
It really helped us that the other team played badly. (‘that the other team
played badly’ is the real subject)
4. It’s obvious how the thieves broke in, but it’s a mystery why they only took
one old computer.

We can use whether or if in a noun clause at the end after IT as subject (5), but only
whether in a noun clause in subject position (6).
5. It doesn’t really matter whether/if you go now or later.
6. Whether you go now or later doesn’t really matter.
(NOT If you go now or later doesn’t matter.)

31
Noun clauses as objects or after empty object IT
We can use a noun clause as an object after a verb to express facts (7) or ideas (8), and
in indirect speech (9).
7. We learned that pineapples don’t grow on trees. -> Finite clause, noun clause, obj of learned
No one noticed that the keys were missing.
8. She could never anticipate what he might want.
Ewan suggested that we should leave early.
9. He screamed that he hated school.
She said that she felt that everyone was against her.

After verbs such as SHOW and TELL, we include an indirect object (you, me) before
a noun clause as direct object.
13. I’ll show you how it works. He told me that he loved me. (NOT He told that he
loved me)
Other verbs used like this include: ASSURE, CONVINCE, INFORM, NOTIFY,
PERSUADE, REMIND, WARN

After verbs of ‘liking’ (or ‘not liking’), we use it as an empty object before a noun
clause.
11. He doesn’t like it that she still smokes.
I hate it that nobody ever cleans up after the meetings.

After ‘thinking’ verbs such as CONSIDER and THINK, we can use it as an empty
object plus a noun (12) or adjective (13) before a noun clause. After verbs such as
REGARD, SEE or VIEW, we use it + as before a noun or adjective and a noun clause
(14).
12. They consider it an offence when women go out in public without covering
their heads.
(‘when women go out in public without covering their heads’ is the real object of
the verb ‘consider’)
13. We thought it odd that no one called us.
(NOT We thought odd that no one called us.)
14. Many people regard it as a really bad idea that the police have started
carrying guns.

32
 PRACTICE 1
1. Find one example from 7—14 above to write in each space.
1 ‘Feeling’ verbs (fear, sense, worry): She felt that everyone was against her.

(9)
2 ‘Learning’ verbs (discover, find, realize):
……………………………………………………….
3 ‘Noticing’ verbs (observe, perceive, recognize):
……………………………………………………….
4. ‘Predicting’ verbs (expect, forecast, hope):
……………………………………………………….
5 ‘Showing’ verbs (demonstrate, indicate, reveal):
…………………………………..................................
6 ‘Speaking’ verbs (explain, mention, whisper):
……………………………………...............................
7 ‘Suggesting’ verbs (advise, propose, recommend):
…………………………………………………………
8 ‘Thinking’ verbs (believe, conclude, imagine):
………………………………………………………….

2. Rewrite these sentences in a less formal style beginning with ‘It’.

a. That they don’t have any money left doesn’t surprise me.
………………………………………………………………………………………
b. That children would rather sit watching TV instead of playing outside just
astonishes me.
………………………………………………………………………………………
c. Why the government didn’t act immediately to stop the movement of all
animals has never been explained.
………………………………………………………………………………………
d. Whether Nicole’s father had been for or against her marriage wasn’t clear, but
he did participate in the wedding ceremony.
…………………………………………………………………….. ………………

33
3. Add one set of words in each paragraph (in any order).
it/ that/ that it/ that/ what that/ where/ whether

A. He wanted to know (1)…………………we were doing but

(2)……………….was obvious (3)…………… he didn’t really seem very
interested in our answer.
B. Sometimes one of them will say (4)………………. he or she actually prefers
(5)………………. (6)………………… the other has separate interest.
C. (7)…………………Robert’s new schedule will be an improvement remains to
be seen, but no one liked it (8)…………………. he just decided
(9)………………..the changes would be made without consulting anyone.

4. Correct the mistakes in these sentences.

a. Mr Baker complained about the noise was predictable, but we assured it
wouldn’t happen again.
………………………………………………………………………………………
b. The headmaster warned during our meeting some teachers wouldn’t like their
classrooms had suddenly been changed.
………………………………………………………………………………………
c. They told me about Geoff had said in the meeting, but I thought strange he
hadn’t mentioned money.
………………………………………………………………………………………
d. The police regarded suspicious the dead woman’s husband had recently taken
out a life insurance.
………………………………………………………………………………………
e. The prosecutor showed the jury how could the crime have been committed by
Feldman, but he didn’t convince that Feldman was guilty.
………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Noun clauses after nouns (noun complement clauses/ noun

clauses in apposition to nouns)
Noun complement clauses
We often use noun clauses after nouns derived from verbs (conclude — conclusion,
indicate — indication). Others include: BELIEF, DISCOVERY, EXPECTATION,
FEELING, OBSERVATION, PROPOSAL, REALIZATION
1. Her conclusion that boys are faster is wrong. (the noun clause ‘that boys
are faster’ is in apposition to the noun ‘her conclusion’)

34
 2. There have been some recent indications that the economy is slowing
down.
(the noun clause ‘that economy is slowing down’ is in apposition to the noun
‘some recent indications’)
We can also use noun clauses after nouns expressing possibility, often omitting ‘that’
in informal situations:
3 There’s a possibility (that) I’ll be in town next week.
Is there any chance (that) we can meet?

After nouns such as issue and question, we include ‘of’ before a wh-clause:
4. We considered the issue of what we mean by freedom.
It’s a question of how we can survive.
the fact that…
We can use ‘the fact that’ (rather than ‘that’) to introduce a noun clause:
5. The fact that he was married didn’t bother her.
6. She also ignored the fact that he had children.

After the verbs CONCEAL, DISCUSS, DISPUTE, DISREGARD, HIDE, OVERLOOK,

SUPPORT we must use ‘the fact that’, not ‘that’
7. We discussed the fact that he had been absent a lot.
(NOT …discussed that he had been absent a lot)

We also use the fact that (not ‘that’) after prepositions (11) and phrasal verbs (12). We
can use nouns with more specific meanings such as idea or news instead of fact in
these structures (13):
8. He pointed to the fact that Britain is an island.
(NOT He pointed to that Britain is an island)
Despite the fact that she’s small, she’s very strong.
(NOT Despite that she’s small, ...)
9. They covered up the fact that people had died.
10. I don’t agree with the idea that older is wiser.
They played down the news that prices had risen.

Noun clauses in apposition to nouns

Parenthetical noun clauses are sometimes used after nouns as a way of providing extra
information or as a reminder. They are separated by commas (11), dashes (12) or
brackets (13).
11. His excuse, that he had fallen asleep on the bus, was hard to believe.
12. One idea — that Elvis is still alive — keeps coming up in interviews with
fans.

35
 13. They were questioning her about her first explanation (that there had been
a burglar) when suddenly changed her story completely.

 Noun clauses with that or relative clauses with that?

We can use the word that after a noun to introduce a noun clause (14) or a relative
clause (15). In a relative clause (not a noun clause), that is a pronoun and can be
replaced by which or who (16).
14. The story that he was in a crash isn’t true.
(NOT The story which he was in a crash ...)
15. The story that/which he told us isn’t true.
16. I saw a boy that/who looked just like Harry.

PRACTICE 2
1. Rewrite these sentences as a single sentence using a noun derived from the verb
in the sentence above it, plus other appropriate changes.
Example:
I expected that the task would be simple. That was obviously too optimistic.
My expectation that the task would be simple was obviously too optimistic.
1. He explained that he had been stuck in traffic for over an hour. It didn’t sound
right.
His ……………………………………………………………………………………..
2. They discovered the boy suffered from asthma. It changed their attitude.
Their …………………………………………………………………………………..
3. People believe there are aliens from outer space living among us. It’s quite
widespread.
The ……………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Complete this report with these phrases plus ‘that’ where necessary.
belief example of against the idea to the fact

conclusion was in agreement despite the fact with the view

In our group we discussed the death penalty. Two people agreed

(1)……………………………… the death penalty was necessary for serious crimes.
They pointed (2) ……………………………… it was still used in the USA as

36
punishment for murder and their (3) ……………………………… it acted as a
deterrent, stopping people from committing crimes. One woman argued (4)
……………………………… the death penalty could stop or reduce crime. She said
that the USA provided an (5) ……………………………… what happens when a
society is based on violence. (6) ……………………………… they had the death
penalty, the USA continued to have the worst and most violent crime rates.
It was her (7) ……………………………… no government should be allowed to kill its
own people, even if they are criminals. The others in our group were
generally (8) ……………………………… there should not be a death penalty.

3. Editing. Correct the mistakes in the use of noun clauses in this text.

According to one definition, the women’s movement is a social and political movement
the idea that
promoting λ men and women should have equal rights in society. It tries to raise issues

how equality can be accomplished by first getting people to recognize the fact which

women don’t have equal opportunity. It is based on the belief people’s attitudes can

be changed and the assumption other peaceful changes can be made through the legal

system, in spite of it is largely controlled by men.

4. Using a dictionary if necessary, complete the following definitions with these

nouns plus that ( noun clause) or which (= relative clause).
déjà vu premonition skepticism superstition

1. A …………………………..is a feeling …………………………..something is

going to happen, often something …………………………..is unpleasant.
2. …………………………..means having doubts………………………..statements
are true or …………………………..something will happen.
3. A………………………….. is a belief …………………………..events happen in a
way …………………………..cannot be explained by reason.

37
4. ………………………….. is the sense …………………………..you have already
experienced something …………………………..is happening now.

3. Noun clauses as subject complements

When a noun clause follows a linking verb (be, seem, appear), it functions as the
subject complement.
In informal uses, we often leave out ‘that’ after be:

1. One theory is that gravity travels at the speed of light.

2. Our concern is how we can test the theory.
3. Matt’s basic problem was (that) he had failed two tests.
4. The truth is (that) he never studies.

We can use a noun plus seem or appear before to be and a noun clause (5).
5. The assumption seemed/appeared to be that we would all pay more for high
speed service.

4. Noun clauses as adjectival complements

We can use that-clauses (1) and wh-clauses (2) after adjectives. In these cases, the
noun clause functions as an adjectival complement. After some adjectives, such as
sorry and happy, we include prepositions before wh-clauses, but not before that-
clauses (3).
1. Mark was surprised that you asked about him.
2. We weren’t certain when he would arrive.
I am curious what color it is
In informal situations, we often use noun clauses without ‘that’ after adjectives:
3. I’m sure (that) it’s a mistake.
We’re glad (that) you’re here.
He’s lucky (that) he wasn’t hurt.

We can use adjectives for personal feelings (AFRAID, AMAZED, ANGRY,

DISAPPOINTED, HAPPY, PROUD, SAD, WORRIED) before noun clauses describing
the cause of those feelings.
5. We were afraid (that) you wouldn’t come.
Aren’t you worried (that) Tess might get injured?

We can also use adjectives expressing degree of certainty (CERTAIN, CONFIDENT,

CONVINCED, DOUBTFUL, POSITIVE, SURE, UNSURE) before noun clauses
describing the information we are more or less certain about (6):
38
 6. He was positive (that) he had chosen the right answer.
I’m not sure if I heard him correctly.

 NOTE: When the sentence begins with an empty subject ‘It’, the noun clause
that follows a linking verb is the real subject of the sentence:
It’s disgraceful that children can’t spell their own names!
(= That children can’t spell their own names is disgraceful!)
It seems odd that he didn’t call.
(= That he didn’t call seems odd.)

PRACTICE 3
1. Rewrite these pairs of sentences as a single sentence containing a noun clause.
Example: He made such a mess. I was angry about it.
I was angry (that) he made such a mess.
1. Our old car might break down. We were afraid of that.
We ……………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Karen suddenly decided to quit her job. I was completely surprised by that.
I ………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The test would be easy. Sean was absolutely sure of it.
Sean …………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Sue might not have enough money. They were really worried about that.
They …………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Choose an adjective or an adjective with a preposition for each space. Add
THAT, HOW, WHAT or WHEN where necessary.
aware of embarrassed by glad
amazed surprising unlikely

Our teacher always encouraged us to try to guess what new words and
phrases meant because it was (1) …………………………… we would always be able
to use our dictionaries. It was good advice, but I was very (2)
…………………………… wrong my guesses could be sometimes. For example, I had
guessed that the phrase ‘kick the bucket’ must mean that you are very happy
and you show that you are happy by kicking a bucket. You just give it a good
39
kick. That made sense to me. So, it was rather (3) …………………………… I
discovered that it meant the same as ‘die I was really (4) ……………………………
I hadn’t tried to use the phrase. I would be so (5) …………………………… people
would think if they had told me that they had good news and I had said,
‘Great! Now you’ll kick the bucket!’ They would be totally (6) ……………………………
I had said such an inappropriate thing.

4. The subjunctive or SHOULD in noun clauses

Write the numbers of appropriate examples in the spaces

We can use the present subjunctive, which has the same form as the base form of the
verb, in that-clauses ………... We put not before the verb in the negative subjunctive
………... We only use the subjunctive in formal situations. We can use should before
the base form of the verb instead of the present subjunctive ………...
1. Dr Evans specifically requested that no one have access to patients’ files
unless authorized.
2. We have already recommended that young children not be left alone in parked
cars.
3. The doctor requested that no one should have access to the files.
We have already recommended that children shouldn’t be left alone.
The past subjunctive (were) is also used in noun clauses after wish: I wish (that) I were
taller.
We can use the present subjunctive or should in that-clauses after verbs expressing
orders……….., rules………..or suggestions ……….. .
4. The committee has suggested that the cost of admission (should) be
increased.
5. The job description stipulates that the applicant (should) have a degree in
English.
6. The judge insisted that the boy (should) be punished and that he (should)
pay for the damage.
Other verbs used with the subjunctive include: ADVISE, ASK, DEMAND, ORDER,
PROPOSE, REQUIRE
We can use the subjunctive or should in a reported order ….., but not in a reported
statement……
7. ‘He has to be over eighteen.’ They insist that he (should) be over eighteen.
8. ‘I am over eighteen!’  He insists that he is over eighteen.
We can also use the subjunctive or should in that-clauses after nouns expressing
orders….., rules….or suggestions ….and after adjectives expressing what is
necessary....
40
 9. It is our recommendation that he (should) not say anything until the
investigation is over.
10. Isn’t there a rule that safety equipment (should) be worn whenever
machinery is running?
11. They gave instructions that all passengers (should) have passports ready
for inspection.
12. It is essential that no one (should) feel excluded. / It is vital that every
voice (should) be heard.
Other adjectives used like this include: CRUCIAL, IMPERATIVE, IMPORTANT,
NECESSARY

FURTHER PRACTICE
1. Choose an ending (a—f) for each beginning (1—6) and add appropriate forms
of these words, using the subjunctive or should where appropriate
arrest give insist recommend
suggestion crucial have not disturb
requirement stipulate wear spend
1. The nurse says it’s ……...) a. that the winner ………..a car as the prize.
2. The advertisement ………(...) b. that uniforms …………..at all times.
3. The travel agent …………(...) c. that the applicant …………two years’
experience.
4. Someone offered the …….(...) d. that the patient………………
5. The school had a ……… (...) e. that they ……………..the wrong person.
6. The prisoner ………. (...) f. that we ……………a week in Paris.

2. Add one set of clauses to each paragraph (not necessarily in this order).
-what happened that day / what they’re thinking / who their best friends are

-if women and men talk equally / people think / the women talked more

-that men think / that they hear women / women talk a lot

-that men get the impression / that women are less likely than men / that

women never tell jokes

A For women, the essence of friendship is talk, telling each other (1)
…………………………….and feeling, and (2) ……………………………. .
When asked (3) ……………………………., most women name other women
they regularly talk to.

41
B Women can and do tell jokes. However, it is true (4)
…………………………….to tell jokes in large groups, especially groups
including men, so it’s not surprising
(5) ……………………………..……. (6) …………………….……………….

C Studies have shown that, (7) ………………………….……. in a group, (8)

………………………. (9) ………………………………...
D The finding (10) ……………………….……..…. (11) ……….……………….
may be due to the fact (12) ………………………………….talking in social
situations where men have little to say.

3. Write one of these clauses in each space in the following sentences (from a
magazine article) and add that where it is appropriate.
Columbus wasn’t the first European

there was another world

Columbus reached Iceland

he could reach China

Columbus’s visit to Iceland gave him the confidence

there would eventually be a place to land

Was it from the Vikings in Iceland that Christopher Columbus learned the crucial
information (1) ……………………………………………………………further to the
West? Columbus’s son described a voyage his father had made to the northern edge of
Europe in 1477.
Many scholars now believe (2) …………………..………………………………during
that voyage.
Seven years later, in 1484, Columbus proposed to the king of Portugal that, by crossing
the Atlantic, (3) ………………………………………………………………
The idea (4) …………………………………….…………………to reach America may
come as a surprise to some, but scholars in northern Europe have always suspected (5)
……………………………………………………..… to set sail across the Atlantic,
knowing that, if he kept going, (6) ………………………….…………… on the other
side.

42
4. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence.
1. Can you understand __________________________?
a she is saying b what is saying c what she is saying d what is she saying
2. __________________ you wait or come back later is up to you.
a If b That c When d Whether
3. They will recommend that she _________________ soon.
a leave b is leaving c left d will leave ,
4. Elizabeth explained during the meeting that it was a ______________ of what
should have priority.
a belief b fact c possibility d question
5. The regulations ____________________ that a lawyer always be present during
any interrogations.
a assure b require c seem d state

5. Identify the one underlined expression (A, B, C or D) that must be changed to

correct the sentence.
1. Sandra stayed with John wasn’t surprising, but it was obvious to everyone that
A
they had decided they were bust friends and that marriage wasn’t in their plans.
B C D
2. He didn’t know who it was and couldn’t imagine why they did it, but there must
A B
have been somebody that started the rumor which he was from London and very wealthy.
C D
3. I heard about that the director said to them that he didn’t think it necessary that he
A B
should have to agree with everything they proposed.
C D
4. It became obvious that a lot of British people didn’t like that their government
A B
considered it essential that they should join the European Community.
C D
5. Martin told me that he wanted to remind that what was important was not the cost,
A B C
but how well the job was done.
D
6. In the original version of this paragraph there were six conjunctions (five thats
and one how) introducing noun clauses. One example is shown. Add the others in
appropriate places.
Categorization plays a crucial role in human cognition, yet we give little thought to
this process. Indeed, it seems that most of us have a very simple idea of

43
categorization works: we take it for granted categories have clear boundaries, and all
members of a given category must have something in common. If we consider the
purpose of categorization, we see it is not surprising we hold such a view.

7. Complete each sentence with a noun clause in such a way that it is as similar as
possible in meaning to the sentence(s) above it.
1. His parents weren’t English. He didn’t conceal it.
He …………………………………………………………………………………
2. Why anyone would want to jump out of a plane and put their trust in a
parachute has always been a big mystery to me.
It …………………………………………………………………………………..
3. We expected that no one would be there.
Our ………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Her comments had upset Mark’s mother. Bridget was sorry about that.
Bridget …………………………………………………………………………..
5. These apples don’t look very nice, but they’re delicious.
Despite …………………………………………………………………………..

8. Complete each sentences with noun clauses.

1. “My father is a businessman. My mother is an engineer.”
He said that ……………………………………………………………………..
2. “I am excited about my new job. I’ve found a nice department.”
I got a letter from my sister yesterday. She said ………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….
3. “Your uncle Harry is in the hospital. Your aunt Sally is very worried about
him.”
The last time my mother wrote to me, she said ………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. “I expect you to be in my class every day. Unexcused absences may affect
your grades.”
Our sociology professor said …………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………

44
 5. “Highway 66 will be closed for two months. Commuters should seek
alternate routes.”
The newspaper said ……………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………
6. “I’m getting good grades, but I have difficulty understanding lectures.”
In his last letter, he wrote ………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………
7. Every obstacle is a steppingstone to success. You should view problems in
your life as opportunities to prove yourself.”
My father often told me ………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
8. “I’ll come to the meeting, but I can’t stay for more than an hour.”
Julia told me ……………………………………………………………………..

9. Find an appropriate word(s) to fill in the gaps in the following sentences.

1. …………………….. they choose will probably accept.

2. Tell me ……………………..is likely to run for that office.

3. I will vote for ……………………..will do the best job.

4. The candidate chosen was exactly ……………………..you predicted.

5. She said she saw Brian at the cinema, but she couldn’t tell …………………..
he was with. I doubt ……………………..it was Ann.

6. She’s been dating Paul and Tony. I’ve no idea ……….....she’s going to marry.

7. He’s hurt himself falling off his bike. I wonder ………….. he’ll be able to take
part in the match tomorrow.

8. The car was a total wreck. We all wonder ……….. the driver managed to
survive the crash without a scratch.

9. He told me he’s going to, but he didn’t tell me ……….. he’s going to stay
there.

10. Belinda’s excuse is not convincing. It’s obvious ……….. she’s telling a lie.

10. Underline the noun clause in the following sentences and identify its function.
45
 1. You know that the telephone was ringing.

2. What you say can be recorded.

3. The sound waves carry the message to whoever is listening.

4. Basically, this is how a telephone works.

5. You can talk to whomever you like and say whatever you think.

6. The king ordered that the traitor should be put to death.

7. He said that he would not go.

8. That he is not interested in the offer is known to us.

9. He said that he was not feeling well.

10. I cannot rely on what he says.

11. I don’t know where he has gone.

12. He asked whether the servant had polished his shoes.

13. It is amazing that he can imitate Barack Obama.

14. The belief that the soul is immortal is almost universal.

15. It is certain that we will have to admit defeat.

16. It was fortunate that he was present.

17. I am curious what color it is.

18. It is a mystery what inspired him.

19. The news that he is alive has been confirmed.

20. My Mom shook her head, adding that we were too young to show up at the
event.

11. Identify whether the subordinate clauses in the following sentences are
nominal or adjectival clauses:

1. The news that he won surprised us all.

2. The news which we received last month was unbelievable.

46
 3. It is a fact that the earth is round.

4. The fact that the earth is round is well-known.

5. Many people hope that Canada can resolve its economic problems.

6. The bankers need to know what they should do.

7. Which one is the person who stole your car?

8. The books which the professor assigned were very expensive.

9. That is the place where Wolfe's and Montcalm's armies fought.

10. It is important to ask whether the wedding is formal or semi-formal.

11. Your question, what I intend to do after I graduate, is hard to answer.

12. Your question, which will be raised at our annual meeting, is hard to answer.

13. My first day at the university, when I started my independent life, is

unforgettable.

14. It is an unforgettable day, my first day at the university.

15. My boss’s request that everybody is checked before leaving the factory upsets us.

16. My boss’s request, which will be initiated next month, upsets workers.

17. My teacher’s suggestion that we should stay at a youth center is really a good
idea.

18. My teacher’s wonder, whether they are able to present their work, seems
understandable.

19. My teacher’s wonder, which was not put into words, seems understandable.

20. It is impossible to understand the doctor’s instruction, which included a lot of

technical terms.

12. Error analysis- correct the errors in the following sentences.

1. Please tell me what is your name.

2. No one seems to know when will Maria arrive.
3. I wonder why was Bob late for class.

47
4. I don’t know what does that word mean.
5. I wonder does the teacher know the answer?
6. What should they do about the hole in their roof is their most pressing problem.
7. I’ll ask her would she like some coffee or not.
8. Be sure to tell the doctor where does it hurt.
9. Why am I unhappy is something I can’t explain.
10. I wonder does Tom know about the meeting or not.
11. I need to know who is your teacher.
12. I don’t understand why is the car not running properly.
13. My young son wants to know where do the stars go in the daytime?
14. Tell the taxi driver where do you want to go.
15. My roommate came into the room and asked me why aren’t you in class? I said
I’m waiting for a telephone call from my family.
16. It was my first day at the university, and I am on my way to my first class. I
wondered who else will be in the class. What the teacher would be like?
17. He asked me that what did I intent to do after I graduate?
18. Many of the people in the United States doesn’t know much about geography. For
example, people will ask you where is Japan located.
19. What does a patient tell a doctor it is confidential.
20. What my friend and I did it was our secret. We didn’t even tell our parents what
did we do.
21. The doctor asked that I felt OK. I told him that I don’t feel well.
22. Is clear that the ability to use a computer it is an important skill in the modern
world.
23. I asked him what kind of movies does he like, he said me, I like romantic movies.
24. Is true you almost drowned? My friend asked me. Yes, I said, I’m really glad to
be alive. It was really frightening.
25. It is a fact that almost drowned makes me very careful about water safety
whenever I go swimming.
26. I didn’t know where am I supposed to get off the bus, so I asked the driver where
is the science museum. She tell me the name of the street. She said she will tell me
when should I get off the bus.
48
 27. My mother did not live with us. When other children asked me where was my
mother, I told them she is going to come to visit me very soon.
28. When I asked the taxi driver to drive faster he said I will drive faster if you pay
me more. At that time I didn’t care how much would it cost, so I told him to go as
fast as he can.
29. We looked back to see where are we and how far are we from camp. We don’t
know, so we decided to turn back. We are afraid that we wander too far.
30. After the accident, I opened my eyes slowly and realize that I am still alive.
31. My country is prospering due to it is a fact that it has become a leading producer
of oil.
32. Is true that one must to know English in order to study at an American university.
33. My mother told me what it was the purpose of our visit.

13. Complete the sentences.

1. I cannot understand why ……………………………………………………………..

2. One of the students remarked that ……………………………………………………

3. I was not sure whose ………………………………………………………………….

4. What ……………………………………………………………..……. surprised me.

5. That she ……………………………………………………………… surprised me.

6. One of the students stated that ……………………………………………………….

7. I could not ...…………………………… due to the fact that ……………..................

…………………………………………………………………………………………...

8. What he said was that ………………………………………………………………...

9. No one knows who …………………………………………………………………...

10. The instructor announced that ………………………………………………………

11. What I want to know is why ………………………………………………………

12. What ………………………………………………………...……. is not important.

49
13. We discussed the fact that …………………………………………………………

14. I wonder whether ……………………………………………………………………

15. Can you tell me where ………………………………………………………………

50
 PART FOUR: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Introduction
Adverbial clauses usually begin with conjunctions such as although, because, when ...
The conjunction shows the relationship between the adverbial clause and the rest of
the sentence. (Although the sun’s shining, it’s freezing outside this morning. I’m not
going out because it’s so cold.)

We can use adverbial clauses (I might go out when it gets warmer) to provide
additional information about an action or situation in a way that is similar to adverbs
(I might go out later) and prepositional phrases (I might go out in the afternoon).

Read through the following text and find one adverbial clause in each
paragraph.

51
 D. When there was a spell of warm summer
A. After her husband passed away, weather, the weeds would spread out from
Emily Armstrong continued to take the cracks, especially in the south around
care of the special garden he had the London area. Before Emily could get to
created in front of their small house. them, they would almost be in Wales, a wild
She imagined that Harry was ‘up there’ patch of green in the pale grey expanse of
and looking down from time to time, the rest of the country.
so she tried to take good care of his
proud creation. E. The busiest time was autumn, when Emily
had to go out and sweep the whole country
B. Before he began his career with the every morning. If it wasn’t wet, she could
national weather service, Harry had just use a brush to push the leaves down
studied geography and art. Although through England and sweep them away in
he’d had to give up his artistic the general direction of France. When it
ambitions, Harry still managed to find rained a lot, she would stand inside,
ways to be creative in his spare time. watching the leaves pile up in a soggy mess
He had designed and created over most of Scotland.
something unique in their front
garden. F. Even though it wasn’t really cold during
most of the winter, there would
C. It wasn’t a garden in the usual sense. occasionally be freezing days of snow and
There were no plants. Emily had tried sleet, after which Harry’s concrete map
to put in some flowers around the would be transformed into a shining
edges, but they always died. Her sculpture of pure ice. The rough edges of
neighbor, Mrs Blair, said it was Britain would change into smooth
probably because there was all that glistening lines and the country would
cement in the soil. Harry hadn’t become an abstract shape, as if it had been
known, when he was mixing the carved from a large flat slab of marble by an
cement, sand and water, then pouring expert hand. On a cold clear December
it out into the wooden frame, that his morning, Emily would look out at the
concrete map would end up as the only sculpture in her garden with a strong sense
thing in the garden, apart from the that, at that very moment, Harry was also
weeds that grew in small cracks in the looking down and enjoying the scene. He
river valleys. had used weather to create art from
geography.

After reading the text above, decide whether these statements are true (T) or
false (F).

52
1. Harry Armstrong had studied art before he worked for the national weather service.
T/F
2. When Harry died, his wife created a concrete map of Britain in their front garden.
T/F
3. While he was mixing the concrete, Harry decided that his map would be the only
thing in the garden. T/F
4. Weeds grew in the cracks because the flowers Emily planted always died. T/F
5. If the weather was dry, Emily could brush the leaves off the map. T/F
6. When the weather was freezing in winter, the map looked like an ice sculpture. T / F

Adverbial clauses and conjunctions

We can use an adverbial clause (before he left) as part of a sentence in a way that is
similar to an adverb (earlier) or a prepositional phrase (at ten o’clock).
1. I talked to Bill before he left.
= I talked to Bill earlier. = I talked to Bill at ten o’clock.

We usually put an adverbial clause after the main clause in the sentence (2). If we put an
adverbial clause before the main clause, we include a comma between them (3).
2. You won’t pass the test if you don’t study.
We had to turn on the heating because it was cold.
3. If you don’t study, you won’t pass the test.
Because it was cold, we had to turn on the heating.

We sometimes use more than one adverbial clause in a sentence.

4. Don’t touch the paint before it has dried + because bubbles may form + if
anything touches it.

Conjunctions

We use a subordinating conjunction such as after or while to connect an adverbial clause

to another clause and to show how the meanings of the two clauses are related.
5. After you have a rest, you’ll probably feel better.
I can’t listen to music while I’m studying.
Other subordinating conjunctions: AS, AS IF, AS SOON AS, IF, IN ORDER TO, SINCE,
SO, SO THAT

53
When we connect an adverbial clause to another clause, we use a single conjunction (6).
We don’t use an adverbial clause as a separate sentence (7).
6. Because there were no lights, I couldn’t see anything.
It was dark so I couldn’t do any work
(NOT Because there were no lights, so I couldn’t do any work.)
7. We couldn’t use our computers because there was no electricity this morning.
(NOT We couldn’t use our computers. Because there was no electricity this
morning.)

We can use some words, such as AFTER, BEFORE and THAN, as conjunctions with
adverbial clauses or as prepositions with noun phrases (8). After conjunctions, we use
subject pronouns (we, they) plus verbs (9). After prepositions, we use object pronouns (us,
them) (10).
8. I’ll talk to you after I get out of my next meeting.
9. Tony had arrived before we got there. We had more money than they had.
10. Tony had arrived before us. We had more money than them.

Some conjunctions we use with adverbial clauses (BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, WHILE)

have similar meanings to prepositions used with noun phrases (because of, despite,
during).

11. There were delays because the weather was bad.

= There were delays because of bad weather.
12. Although she’s old, Agnes still plays tennis.
= Despite her age, Agnes still plays tennis.
13. He got injured while we were playing.
= He got injured during the game.
Find adverbial clauses in the text on pages with p51 meanings similar to these
phrases.

1 After her husband’s death: ………………………………………………………………

2 Because of the cement: ………………………………………………………………….
3 During warm summer weather: …………………………………………………………
4 Despite the usually mild winter weather: ……………………………………………….
5 Like a carving: …………………………………………………………………………..

1. Time clauses
1.1 WHEN, WHILE, AS

54
We can use WHEN at the beginning of an adverbial clause describing a period of time (1)
or a point in time (2).
1. When I was young, we didn’t watch TV. -> Finite clause, adverbial clause of time, modifying didn't
watch
Most people don’t have cars when they’re students.
2. When we heard the news, we were delighted.
I’ll check my email when I get to work.
When, While, as, since, after, before, until -> adverbial clause of time

 Note that we don’t use WILL in time clauses. (NOT I’ll check my email when I
will get to work.)

We also use clauses beginning with WHEN to describe something that happens soon after
something else in another clause (3) or that interrupts something in another clause (4). We
can use WHEN like IF in a factual conditional to talk about ‘every time’ something
happens (5).
3. We had just reached the shelter when the rain started pouring down.
4. I was sleeping like a baby when the alarm went off.
5. When demand increases, prices rise.
The roof used to leak when we had heavy rain.

We can use a clause with WHILE (‘during the period that’) or WHEN to describe a period
of time with another clause to describe what happens at some point in that period of time
(6). We often use WHILE to connect clauses in which two things happen at the same time
for the whole period of time (7).
6. While / When you were out, your mother called.
I fell asleep while/when I was reading.
7. There was nowhere to park, so I just drove round in the car while Tim was in the
bank.
We can use AS like WHEN and WHILE for a period of time during which something
happens (8). We can use AS or JUST AS (not while) to focus on the precise moment that
something happens (9). We also use AS to show a connection between one type of change
over time and another (10).
8. As/ When / While I was getting ready to leave, I heard that my flight had been
cancelled.
9. As I walked out of the hotel, a gust of wind blew my hat off.
It happened just as I stepped outside.
10. As I get older, I care less about what other people think.
(NOT While I get older, I care less ...)

55
 PRACTICE 1
1. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in
meaning to the sentence above it.
1. I watched Maurice drive by in his new car while I was standing at the bus stop in
the rain.
When …………………………………………………………………………………
2. You’ll know that the fruit is getting ripe when the skin starts to turn yellow.
As …………………………………………………………………………………….
3. We shouldn’t talk about anything to do with work during lunch.
While …………………………………………………………………………………
4. 1 was getting out of the shower when the phone rang in the other room.
Just as…………………………………………………………………………………

2. Using information from the text on page 51, draw a circle round the
appropriate conjunction(s) in the following sentences. More than one
conjunction may be appropriate.

1. When / While Harry started working for the national weather service, he’d given
up his artistic ambitions.
2. When / While it was wet during the autumn months, Emily couldn’t brush the
leaves away.
3. As / While the weather got warmer, weeds would spread out from the cracks.
4. As / When / While Emily looked at the sculpture on a cold clear December
morning, she had a sense that Harry was doing the same thing.

1.2 AFTER, BEFORE, UNTIL, SINCE, etc.

56
We use AFTER (‘at a point later than’) in the adverbial clause when the other clause
describes something that happens later (1). We use BEFORE (‘at a point earlier than’) in
the adverbial clause when the other clause describes something that happens at any time
earlier (2). We often use AFTER with the present simple or present perfect (not will) for a
completed action (3).
1. After they left, we cleaned up and went to bed.
What will you do after you graduate?
2. Before he leaves, I’ll ask him about the money.
They had eaten breakfast before we got up.
3. I’ll help you after I write / have written my report.
(NOT …after I will write my report)

We use UNTIL (‘up to the time that’) to focus on the end point or outcome of something
(4). We use SINCE (‘from the time that’) to talk about a starting point for something in
another clause that happens later or that is still true (5).
4. We’ll wait until you’re ready.
Heat the wax until it melts. (NOT Heat it before it melts.)
5. How long is it since you’ve been there?
I’ve lived here since I was ten. (NOT after I was ten)

We use the present perfect or past simple (not present simple) after since (NOT since I’m
ten).
We can use ONCE to introduce a clause that describes a starting point for another action
or situation.

We often use ONCE like AFTER with the present simple or present perfect in a clause
describing something as completed.
6. Once you’ve seen Annie, you won’t forget her.
Everyone likes it here once they get used to it.

When we want to say that one thing happens very quickly after another, we can use AS
SOON AS and immediately to introduce the clause with the first action (7). Phrases such
as the instant/minute/ moment/second (that) are used in the same way (8).
7. I came as soon as I heard the news.
Immediately I saw him, I recognized his face.
8. There are some students who rush out of the room the minute (that) class ends.

PRACTICE 2
57
1. Using a dictionary if necessary, complete these descriptions with the
following words.

blender postscript prediction after

before until while skewer

1. A………………….. is a statement about an event ……………………it happens.

2. A ……………………is a wooden or metal stick pushed through pieces of meat
or vegetables to hold them ……………………they are cooking.
3. A…………………… is extra information added ……………………a letter or
story is complete.
4. A ……………………is a machine for chopping or mixing bits of food
……………………they become a liquid.

2. Complete these sentences with have (’ve) been or will (’ll) be.
1. Where will the refugees go after the camps ……………………closed?
2. I’m sorry about the delay, but I ……………………back as soon as I have
checked this.
3. My back still hurts and it will soon be two weeks since I ………………at work.
4. I’m sure we ……………………in London in August before we go to the
Edinburgh Festival, so we can visit your new house then.
5. The moment we hear that the airport is open, relief supplies ………………loaded
on to the waiting aircraft.
6. New students should not register for classes until they ……………………given
their registration numbers.
7. Once you ……………………here for a few weeks, you won’t want to leave.
8. The children ……………………hungry when they come back from swimming
this morning.

3. If necessary, correct these sentences. If they are already correct, put √

1. Before you will know it, your children will have grown up.

2. It was only just in time. As I had taken my seat, the concert started.

3. It’s still two hours before I have to be back.

4. After I paint the outside of the house I’m going to decorate the kitchen.
58
 5. He will be released from prison after he will have served 4 years.

6. She will be 25 when she completes her course.

7. When the two leaders had met, they shook hands.

8. They ordered coffee when they ate their main course.

9. You can watch television after you have cleaned your room.

10. I won’t give up before I will have finished what I set out to do.

4. Choose AS, WHEN or WHILE, whichever is correct or more likely, to complete

the sentences. If there is more than one possible answer, write them all.
1. ………………he was twelve, he moved with his parents to Perth.
2. Tom started to cry ………………Jenny left the room.
3. ………………they were waiting for the taxi, Rod offered to give them a lift.
4. I cut myself……………… I was shaving.
5. Leave the keys at the front desk ………………you leave.
6. ………………the bathroom window broke I was having a shower.
7. Do you remember ………………we went sailing in Sweden with Carol?
8. Trish was on a skiing holiday in France……………… she broke her leg.
9. It’s hard to imagine life in the days ………………there were no antibiotics or
anesthetic.
10. ………………I tried to wake him, it became obvious that he was seriously ill.
11. Sarah was still angry ………………she hung up the phone.
12. Richard hurt his back……………… he was running for a bus.
13. She was walking along the street……………… she tripped over.
14. I was quite good at maths ………………I was at school.
15. I can’t remember ………………we last saw Alison.
16. I get a pain in my left knee ………………I walk up the stairs.

59
 17. ………………I start the car in the morning, the engine makes a terrible grating
noise.
18. ………………you gradually get better at the job, you’ll find that it becomes easier.

2. Manner clauses with AS, AS IF, AS THOUGH, etc.

We can use manner clauses beginning with AS (‘in the form or way that’) (1) and JUST
AS (‘in exactly the form or way that’) (2) when we are describing how something was or
how something was done.
1. The film depicts life as it was in 1900.
Complete each exercise as I showed you. -> Adverbial clause of manner, modifying complete
2. I wrote the note just as you told me to.
Everything happened just as my mother had predicted.

We use AS IF and AS THOUGH with the same meaning in manner clauses after verbs
such as look, seem, sound, taste, etc. (3). We can also use AS IF/THOUGH after verbs
such as act, behave and talk when we are describing behavior (4).
3. Can I help you? You look as if you’re lost.
He sounds as though he might be getting a cold.
4. She always tries to act as if she’s my boss.
They talked about it as though it was worthless.
Subjunctive WERE is sometimes used after AS IF/THOUGH: He treats me as if I were a
child.

In informal situations, like is sometimes used instead of as or as if

5. No one will ever love you like I do.
It feels like winter has suddenly arrived.

3. Comparison clauses
We use AS ... AS (‘in the same way that’) to say that two actions or situations are similar
or different in some way (6). Between the first and second as we can put adjectives and
adverbs (7) or quantifiers such as many and much (8).

6. Is Max still funny in the same way that he used to be?

 Is Max still as funny as he used to be?

7. The weather isn’t as hot as it was last year. -> Adverbial clause of comparison, modifying isn't

60
 We didn’t play as well as we did against France.
8. Were there as many problems as you anticipated?
It didn’t cost as much as he said.

We sometimes form the negative with not so ... as: Ben is not so naïve as you think.

PRACTICE 3
1. Choose the best answer (a—d) for each question (1—4) and add AS or AS IF.

1. Did she seem afraid? ( ) a. No, she was just you had described her.
2. Had she changed much? ( ) b. Yes, she did it she was supposed to.
3. Did she fit in well? ( ) c. Yes, she looked she had seen a ghost.
4. Did she write it correctly? ( ) d. Not really, because she acted she was
better than us.

2. Add one of these clauses, introduced by AS THOUGH, JUST AS or AS.. .

AS, to the following sentences. Make any other necessary changes.

√everyone has been saying

it really is
the guidebook had described it
I remembered it
it was made yesterday
they have done
nothing had happened

Example: Is the new Italian restaurant as good as everyone has been saying

1. No one talked about it. They all behaved ………………………………………………

2. I went to see my old school and it hadn’t changed. It was still …………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. This tea is terrible. It tastes ……………………………………………………………...
4. When you emulate someone successful, you try to do well ……………………………..

61
5. We found the little church hidden in the forest, …………………………………………
6. If you underestimate the cost of something, you think it isn’t much
………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Reason clauses with BECAUSE, AS, SINCE, etc.

We use BECAUSE at the beginning of a clause to give a reason or explanation for

something (1) or to support a statement in an earlier clause (2).
1. Because there had been an accident, we all arrived late.
I didn’t eat because I wasn’t hungry.
2. He says he didn’t drive through a red light, but he’s lying, because I saw him do
it.

We sometimes use AS or SINCE instead of because in reason clauses (3). We can use AS
or WHILE to talk about time and reason together (‘WHILE AND BECAUSE’) (4). We
can use SINCE to talk about a starting point and a reason together (‘from that time and
because’) (5).
3. As it was late, we decided to stop working.
Since she knew Latin, I asked her to translate it.
4. As/ While we’re on the subject of money, I’d like to ask about next year’s budget.
5. Since his wife left him, he’s been depressed.
Since it’s been snowing, we’ve stayed indoors.
We can use now (that) like since (‘from that time and because’) to introduce a clause
explaining a present situation. We usually use the present simple or present perfect after
now (that).
6. Now (that) we’re married, we never go out.
I enjoy opera now (that) I’ve learned more about it.
In formal situations, other conjunctions such as FOR (7) and IN THAT (8) are sometimes
used instead of because to add a reason or explanation for a preceding statement.
7. It would be wise to save some of the money, for there may be unexpected
expenses later.
8. We definitely have a problem in that there are more students than we have room
for.

62
 PRACTICE 4

1. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in

meaning to the pair of sentences above it.
1. All the banks will be closed on Monday. It’s a holiday.
As ………………………………………………………………………………
2. She has had to use crutches. She had an operation on her foot.
Since ………………………………………………………………………………
3. We’re all together today. We should decide on a date for the Christmas party.
While ………………………………………………………………………………
4. I wonder what he’ll do next. He has finished his exams.
Now that ………………………………………………………………………………
2. Match a sentence from the first group (1—4) with one from the second
group (a—d) with a similar meaning and add AS IF or BECAUSE.

Example: I’d love to go out more, but I haven’t had much free time lately. ( e )
1. It’s more expensive to eat in a restaurant, but I don’t like to cook. (…..)
2. If I wanted to avoid doing something, I pretended to be ill. (…..)
3. The cost of meat is higher now, but I don’t eat it, so my food bill hasn’t increased. (...)
4. No matter what the discussion is about, no one ever pays attention to my suggestions.
(….)

a. ……………………..I’m a vegetarian, I’m spending less than other people these days.
b. I acted ……………………..I wasn’t feeling well when I didn’t want to do things.
c. I spend more money on meals ……………………..I don’t make them myself at home.
d. They always treat me ……………………..I have nothing useful to say.
e I haven’t been to a film or a play in ages because I’ve been busy at work.

63
5. Purpose clauses with SO THAT, IN ORDER THAT
We use purpose clauses to describe goals or the intended outcomes of actions. We
can use SO THAT (1) or IN ORDER THAT (2) to introduce purpose clauses, often with
modals such as can (after a clause with a present tense) or could (after a past tense). We
usually use so without that in informal situations (3).
1. I’m going early so that I can find a good seat.
I’ll take my umbrella so that I won’t get wet.
2. Her father had worked hard for many years in order that they could have a better
life.
3. I’m going early so I don’t have to stand in a queue. (NOT in order I don’t have
to stand)
6. Result clauses with SO, SO ... THAT, SUCH ... THAT
We use result clauses beginning with SO to describe effects or unintended outcomes. We
put result clauses after main clauses (1), often separated by a comma in formal uses (2).
1. I’m tired so I’m going to bed.
He missed the bus this morning so he was late for work again.
2. There has been a reduction in the oil supply and increased demand, so prices
have risen.
In formal situations, SO THAT is sometimes used instead of SO to introduce a result
clause. In a result clause, SO THAT (‘as a result’) doesn’t mean the same as so that (‘in
order that’) in a purpose clause.
3. A tree had fallen during the storm so that the road was blocked and we couldn’t
go anywhere. (NOT in order that the road was blocked)
We can use an adjective (4), an adverb (5) or a quantifier (few, little, many or much) (6)
between so and that to form a result clause. We often leave out that in informal uses.
4. It was so nice (that) we ate lunch outside.
5. The lecturer talked so fast (that) none of us could understand him.
6. There were so many people (that) we had to wait.
I ate so much (that) I could hardly move.
We can also use a noun phrase (nice weather) between such and that to introduce a result
clause (7). We often leave out that in informal situations, but not from certain fixed
expressions (in such a way that) (8).
7. It was such nice weather (that) we ate lunch outside.
8. Try to think about these problems in such a way that you don’t exaggerate their
importance.
We can say: It’s so nice that... or It’s such nice weather that... (NOT It’s so nice weather
that...)

64
 PRACTICE 5
1. Rewrite each pair of sentences as a single sentence, using SO in a result
clause.

1. They were feeling really tired. They went to bed early last night.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I wasn’t able to do the homework. I forgot to take my textbook home with me.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Marjorie is in a popular TV show. People recognize her when she’s out shopping.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. We had to drink bottled water. They said the tap water wasn’t safe to drink.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Add one of these clauses, changed to include SO ... THAT or SUCH ...
THAT, to each of the following sentences.

That class was early We had a wonderful time on holiday

The fire spread rapidly through their cabin Wendy’s children had bad colds this
morning
√The fog was thick You and I don’t have much money
Example: The fog was so thick (that) you couldn’t see your hand in front of
your face.
1. ……………………………………………………………they couldn’t save any of
their belongings.
2. ……………………………………………………………she couldn’t let them go to
school.
3. ……………………………………………………………we can just throw it away
carelessly.
4. ……………………………………………………………we didn’t want to come home.
5. ……………………………………………………………everyone had trouble staying
awake in it.

65
7. Contrast clauses with ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, EVEN
THOUGH, etc.

We use although (‘despite the fact that’) at the beginning of a clause which contains
information that contrasts in an unexpected or surprising way with information in another
clause.
1. (The sun was shining. I expected it to be warm.)
Although the sun was shining, it was cold.
(Jim is ill. I expect he doesn’t have to go to work.)
Jim has to go to work although he’s ill.

We can also use but to express contrast, but not with although: Jim is ill, but he has to go
to work. (NOT Although Jim is ill, but he has to go to work.)

We often use though instead of although in informal situations (2). We can use though
(not although) after adjectives or adverbs moved to the beginning of the clause (3).
2. Though Kate’s clever, she isn’t doing very well at school.
He has to go to work though he’s ill.
3. Though the test was difficult, we all passed.
Difficult though the test was, we all passed.
In formal situations, AS is also used in this structure: Difficult as the test was, we all
passed.

When we want to emphasize a contrast, we can use EVEN THOUGH when we are talking
about past or present situations (4) and EVEN IF for future or possible situations (5). We
don’t use even with although or as a conjunction by itself.
4. Bill kept playing golf even though it was raining.
(NOT ... even although it was raining.)
5. Bill would play golf even if it was snowing. (NOT ... even it was snowing.)
Subjunctive were is sometimes used after even if: He would play even if it were snowing.

In formal situations, other conjunctions such as whereas (6) and while (7) are sometimes
used to express a contrast between two clauses. The phrase much as is also used in
contrast clauses with verbs such as LIKE, HATE or WANT (8).
6. Boys were encouraged to be adventurous whereas girls were always told to stay
clean.
7. While no one doubts his ability, his arrogant attitude has been difficult to accept.
8. Much as I like music, I can’t listen to opera for long.
66
 Much as I want to, I can’t help you.
We can use despite the fact that instead of although to introduce a contrast clause (9).
We can also use the prepositions despite or in spite of plus gerunds instead of a clause
with although (10). = although
9. Despite the fact that he had lots of friends, he still felt really lonely sometimes.
10. Despite studying hard, I failed the test.
She wasn’t satisfied in spite of being paid extra.
(NOT Despite I studied hard, I failed. She wasn’t satisfied in spite of she was paid extra.)

PRACTICE 6
1. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in meaning to
the sentence above it.
1. I disagree with his point of view, but I understand why he thinks that way.
Although ………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Jack is still unemployed in spite of applying for about a dozen different jobs
Though ………………………………………………………………………………….
3. While most people agreed that the car was a bargain, none of them wanted to buy it.
Even …………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Though it seems unlikely, the children may not want to go to the zoo on Saturday.
Unlikely …………………………………………………………………………………
5. The old people didn’t have very much money, but they were really generous.
Despite …………………………………………………………………………………..

67
8. Conditional clauses
8.1 The uses of conditional clauses

This real conversation contains some conditional clauses. Find and underline them.

RENEWING YOUR LIBRARY BOOKS

Reader: And if I want to renew my books, do I have to come in, or can I phone and renew
them? I think there's a system where I can phone and tell you the numbers or
something like that?
Librarian: Yes, that's quite all right. Or you can even send us a letter. As long as you give us
the accession number of the book.
Reader: That's the number on the back?
Librarian: No, that's the class number. The number - the accession number - you'll find if
you open the book on the fly-leaf. It's usually about six numbers at least. And if you'd
give us that, the date that is stamped on the date label -the last date stamped – and
your name and address.
Reader: Uh-huh. If I do that, how do I know that it's all right? I mean, if you want the book
back, do you write to me?
Librarian: Yes, we would do that if you had written in, but of course, if you'd telephoned or
called in we could tell you then.
(from M. Underwood Listen to This!)

Conditions express different degrees of reality. For example, a condition can be open or
unreal.
Open: If you join the library, you can borrow books.
Unreal: If you'd arrived ten minutes later, we would have been closed.
An open condition expresses something which may be true or may become true.
(You may join the library).
An unreal condition expresses something which is not true or is imaginary.
(You did not arrive later.)

 NOTE
A condition can also be definitely true:
I'm tired. ~ Well, if you're tired, let's have a rest.
68
 The meaning here is similar to You're tired, so let's have a rest.
We can use conditional sentences in a number of different ways: for example to request,
advise, criticize, suggest, offer, warn or threaten.
If you're going into town, could you post this letter for me?
If you need more information, you should see your careers teacher.
If you hadn't forgotten your passport, we wouldn't be in such a rush.
We can go for a walk if you like.
If I win the prize, I'll share it with you.
If you're walking along the cliff top, don't go too near the edge.
If you don't leave immediately, I'll call the police.

8.2 Verbs in conditional sentences

We can use many different verb forms in conditional sentences. Here are some real
examples.
If you haven't got television, you can't watch it.
If you go to one of the agencies, they have a lot of temporary jobs.
If someone else has requested the book, you would have to give it back.
If you lived on the planet Mercury, you would have four birthdays in a single Earth
year.

In general we use verb forms in conditional sentences in the same way as in other kinds of
sentences. In open conditions we use the present to refer to the future (if you go to one of
the agencies). When we talk about something unreal we often use the past (if you lived)
and would (you would have four birthdays).

 NOTE
When the condition is true, we use verb forms in the normal way.
Well, if your friends left half an hour ago, they aren't going to get to Cornwall by tea
time.
There are some verb forms which often go together. These patterns are usually called
Types 1, 2 and 3.
Type 1: If the company fails, we will lose our money.
Type 2: If the company failed, we would lose our money.
Type 3: If the company had failed, we would have lost our money.
There is another common pattern which we can call Type 0.
Type 0: If the company fails, we lose our money.
The if-clause usually comes before the main clause, but it can come after it.
We lose our money if the company fails.
69
  Mixed conditionals
- We can combine a past condition with a future result.
If they posted the parcel yesterday, it won't get here before Friday.

- We can mix Types 2 and 3.

If Tom was a bit more ambitious, he would have found himself a better job years ago.
If you hadn't woken me up in the middle of the night, I wouldn't feel so tired now.

- We can also use a Type 1 condition with a Type 3 main clause.

If you know London so well, you shouldn't have got lost.

8.3 SHOULD, WERE, HAD and inversion in conditional clauses

The following types of clause are rather formal.

1. We can use SHOULD in an if-clause to talk about something which is possible but not
very likely.
I'm not expecting any calls, but if anyone should ring, could you take a message?
If you should fall ill, we will pay your hospital expenses.

2. Sometimes we use the subjunctive were instead of was.

If the picture was/were genuine, it would be worth thousands of pounds.
If it wasn't/weren't for Emma, I'd have no friends at all.
(= Without Emma,...)

We can also use were to for a theoretical possibility.

If the decision were to go against us, we would appeal.

3. We can express a condition with should or the subjunctive were by inverting the
subject and verb.
Should anyone ring, could you take a message?
Should we not succeed, the consequences would be disastrous.
Were the picture genuine, it would be worth thousands of pounds.
Were the decision to go against us, we would appeal.
We can do the same with the past perfect (Type 3)
Had you taken a taxi, you would have got here on time.
Had the guests not complained, nothing would have been done.
But an if-clause is more common, especially in informal English.

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8.4 If, as long as, unless, in case, etc.

1. IF and WHEN
If the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor might come.)
When the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor will come.)

We use if (not when) for an unreal condition.

If I could see into the future, I'd know what to do.
(I can't see into the future.)

2. In verbless clauses
We can use a short clause with if but without a verb.

I'd like a room facing the street if (that is) possible.

If (you are) in difficulty, ring this number.

3. THEN
After an if-clause we can use THEN in the main clause.
If the figures don't add up, (then) we must have made a mistake.
If no one else has requested the book, (then) you can renew it.

4. AS LONG AS, PROVIDED

As well as if, we can also use AS/SO LONG AS and PROVIDED/PROVIDING (THAT)
to express a condition.
You can renew a book in writing as long as/so long as you give its number.
I don't mind you using my bike provided (that) you take care of it.
We are willing to accept your offer providing (that) payment is made within seven
days.

PROVIDED/PROVIDING (THAT) is a little formal.

 NOTE:
a. ON CONDITION THAT is formal.
We are willing to accept your offer on condition that payment is made within
seven days.
b. The prepositions WITH, WITHOUT and BUT FOR can also express a condition.
With a bit more time, we could do a proper job. (= If we had a bit more time,...)
But for the climate, Edinburgh would be a perfect place to live.
(= If it is not because of the climate…)

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5. WHAT IF and SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING
After a conditional clause with these expressions, there is often no main clause.
What if the tickets don't get here in time?
Suppose/Supposing there's nowhere to park?
6. UNLESS
a. Unless means 'if... not'.
We're going to have a picnic unless it rains/if it doesn't rain.
You can renew a book unless another reader has requested it.
Unless you refund my money, I shall take legal action.

 NOTE
We can use not unless meaning 'only if'.
We won't have a picnic unless it's fine.
Aren't you going to join us?~ Not unless you apologize first.

b. When an unreal condition comes before the main clause, we cannot use unless.
The horse fell. If it hadn't fallen, it would have won the race.
(NOT Unless it had fallen, it would have won.)
But we can use unless after the main clause, as an afterthought.
The horse won easily. No one could have overtaken it, unless it had fallen.

We do not use unless when we talk about a feeling which would result from something
not happening.
Alex will be upset if you don't come to the party.
I shall be very surprised if it doesn't rain.

 NOTE
The adverb OTHERWISE means 'if not'.
You are obliged to refund my money. Otherwise I shall take legal action.

c. We can use AND and OR to express a condition, especially in informal speech.

Touch me and I'll scream. (= If you touch me, I'll scream.)
Go away or I'll scream. (= Unless you go away, I'll scream.)

7. IN CASE
You should insure your belongings in case they get stolen.
(= ... because they might get stolen.)
I took three novels on holiday in case I felt like doing some reading.

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We can use should.
Take a pill in case the crossing is rough/should be rough.
Compare IF and IN CASE.
I'll draw some money out of the bank if I need it.
(= I'll draw it out at the time when I need it.)
I'll draw some money out of the bank in case I need it.
(= I'll draw it out because I might need it later.)

8. EVEN IF and WHETHER ...OR

I wouldn't go on a camping holiday, even if you paid me.
(NOT I wouldn't go even you paid me.)
Joanne wouldn't want a dog even if she had room to keep one.
She wouldn't want a dog whether she had room for one or not.
Whether it's summer or winter, our neighbour always wears a pullover.

PRACTICE 7
Underline the correct verb.
1) If that hat costs much, I (would have bought/will buy/bought/would buy) a small one.
2) If you (drive/drove/had driven/driven) more carefully, you wouldn’t have had so many
accidents.
3) If I (make/makes/made/had made) that mistake again, my teacher will get angry with
me.
4) If I spoke English, my job (was/were/will be/would be) a lot easier.
5) If he (goes/went/had gone/would go) to London yesterday, he (met/would meet/had
met/would have met) his old friend.
6) I will lend them some money if they (ask/will ask/asked/had asked) me.
7) If we had known who he was, we (would have invited/have invited/will invite/would
invite) him to speak at our meeting.
8) My dog will bark if it (hear/hears/heard/had heard) any strange sound.
9) If I (had/had had/will have/have) enough money, I would buy a house.
10) They (won’t let/not let/wouldn’t let/hadn’t let) you in if you come late.
11) If you (not go/don’t go/hadn’t gone/didn’t go) away, I’ll send for a policeman.
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12) If I (were/am/be/was) in your place, I would accept Mr. Anderson’s invitation.
13) If I (win/had won/won/winning) a big prize in a lottery, I’d give up my job.
14) If I (is/am/was/were) you, I (will tell/told/would tell/would have told) the truth.
15) I was busy. If I (have/had/had had/have had) free time. I (would go/will go/would
have gone/go) to the cinema with you.
16) - Why didn’t you attend the meeting?
- Oh, I did not know. If I (know/knew/had known/known) I (would come/would have
come/will come/had come) there.
17) What (would/will/did/had) we do if they do not come tomorrow?
18) If I had enough time now, I (would write/write/will write/wrote) to my parents.
19) It’s too bad Helen isn’t here. If she (is/was/were/are) here, she (will know/knows/
would know/ would have known) what to do.
20) If I don’t eat breakfast tomorrow morning, I (will get/got/would get/had got) hungry
during class.
21) If she (come/comes/came/had come) late again, she’ll lose her job.
22) I’ll let you know if I (find/finds/found/had found) out what’s happening.
23) If we (live/lived/would live/had lived) in a town, life would be better.
24) I’m sure he wouldn’t mind if we (arrive/arriving/arrived/had arrived) early.
25) We (will phone/would phone/phoned/had phoned) you if we have time.
26) If I won the lottery, I (gave/had given/will give/would give) you half the money.
27) It (will/would/can/may) be a pity if she married Fred.
28) If I’m free on Saturday, I (to go/could go/went/can go) to the mountains.
29) She (will has/had/will have/have) a nervous breakdown if she goes on like this.
30) I know I’ll feel better if I (will stop/stopped/stop/had stopped) smoking.
31) If I (am/were/will be/had been) you, I would help him.
32) I could have understood him if he (speaks/spoke/had spoken/would speak) more
slowly.
33) He didn’t listen to the teacher. If he (listens/listened/has listened/had listened)
carefully, he (will performed/would perform/would have performed/had
performed) well in the examination.
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34) He’s waiting for his mother to come back from Chicago. If his mother
(come/comes/will come/came) home, he (will has/will have/has/had) a lot of
presents.
35) He wanted to buy some Christmas presents but he couldn’t. If he (afforded/affords/
had afforded/would afford) to buy, his children (are/were/would have be/would
have been) very happy to greet a new year.
36) The kitchen will look better if we (have/had/had had/would have) red curtains.
37) If I knew his address, I (go/will go/would go/went) round and see him.
38) If you (hadn’t been/weren’t/aren’t/wouldn’t be) so busy, I would have shown you
how to play.
39) It (will be/would be/were/been) quicker if you use a computer.
40) If we have some eggs, I (made/makes/will make/would make) you a cake.

9. Reduced adverbial clauses

An adverbial clause formed with a present participle is called a reduced adverbial clause
(1). We put not before the present participle in the negative (2). Reduced adverbial clauses
are also called participle clauses or non-finite clauses (see more in Chapter 2) and are
typically used in formal situations.
1. When he looked outside, he saw the police car.  Looking outside, he saw the police
car.
2. Because she didn’t feel very well, she sat down.  Not feeling very well, she sat
down.
We can form reduced adverbial clauses with having + past participle for an earlier action,
usually instead of a past perfect (3). We use being + past participle instead of a passive (4).
3. After he had retired, Cecil decided to travel.
 Having retired, Cecil decided to travel.
4. I was really quite flattered at first, because I was asked to work with one of the
professors.
 I was really quite flattered at first, being asked to work with one of the professors.

We usually only use reduced adverbial clauses when the subjects of the main clause and
the adverbial clause are the same (5). We avoid using reduced adverbial clauses when the
subjects are different (6).

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 5. Because it was barking loudly, the dog scared us.  Barking loudly, the dog scared
us.
6. Because it was barking loudly, we were scared.(NOT Barking loudly, we were
scared.)

When we use a subordinating conjunction such as although, though, when, or while with
an adjective or a prepositional phrase (9), or with the past participle of a passive (10), we
can leave out the subject + be. These reduced adverbial clauses are also called verbless
adverbial clauses (see also Chapter 3).
9. Although (they are) small, terriers are tough.
Arnold studied Greek while (he was) at Oxford.
10. Though (it had been) broken, it still worked.
When (it is) seen from space, the earth is blue.

The past participle is sometimes used without a conjunction: Seen from space, the earth is
blue.

PRACTICE 8
1. Add reduced version of these adverbial clauses to the following sentences
(adapted from a newspaper article about problems in London’s Underground
railway system.

although it manages as if they were trying until they make sure

while they waited √ although they were frustrated
once it had been broken since it opened
Example: While waiting…….in line for buses during a recent one-day train strike,
London’s commuters displayed remarkable patience with their struggling
underground.

1. ……………………………………., most people just shrugged and went back to

their newspaper, ………………………………….to ignore this latest
inconvenience.

2. ………………………………..in 1863, the Underground has grown into a

sprawling network of tracks, some of which are in desperate need of repair.

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 3. ………………………………..to cover its operating costs from fares, the
Underground never seems to have enough money for long-term investment and
maintenance.

4. The government’s argument is that, …………………………into several private

companies, each of the system’s smaller parts will be better able to attract new
investment.

5. Opponents of the government’s plan to sell parts of the Underground say that they
should not be allowed to proceed…………………………….that all existing lines
are safe for passengers.

2. Match the sentence halves, using reduced adverb clauses when possible.
1 The jury had no choice but to return a verdict of a ...when it is used as directed.
guilty... b ...while they are also keeping a
2 Parents become good at holding a conversation... watchful eye on their children.
3 It is essential to take anti-malarial tablets... c ...while she was under the
4 My parents were watching television influence of alcohol.
downstairs... d ...when they were presented with
5 The manufacturers claim that the insecticide is all the evidence.
perfectly safe... e ...while I was reading in my
6 She was found guilty of driving... bedroom.
f ...when you are visiting certain
countries in Africa.

EX: 1+ (d)
The jury had no choice but to return a verdict of guilty when they were
presented with all the evidence.

2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
6. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

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FURTHER PRACTICE ON ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
1. Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in
meaning to the sentence above it

1. It was late and I was exhausted, so I went straight to bed.

Because …………………………………………………………………………………..
2. There will have to be a change in his attitude or he won’t continue to work here.
In order for ……………………………………………………………………………..
3. From the way he talked, I thought he owned the restaurant.
He talked ………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Finish your homework, then you can go out.
You can’t ……………………………………………………………………………….
5. I know he’s your friend, but he can’t sleep here.
Even ….…………………………………………………………………………………
6 We left half an hour earlier than necessary because we didn’t want to be late.
So as .……………………………………………………………………………………
2. Choose one word or phrase from each pair to complete the text.

although as easy as as if just as much

despite so that though and so so easy if just
as as much as despite the fact whereas even

(1) ____________________ a lot has been written and said about class differences in
British society, they no longer mean (2) ________________they used to. Traditionally, the
upper classes were wealthy and powerful (3) ____________________ the lower or working
classes were poor. Nowadays, some of the upper classes may still seem to behave and speak
(4) ______________________ their social status continues to be
(5) __________________ it was for their aristocratic ancestors, but it is no longer based on
exclusive wealth and power. Maintaining large houses with lots of servants is not

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(6) _____________________ it used to be and, strange (7) _____________________ it
may seem, the new owners of those large houses may speak with distinctly working-class
or even foreign accents. (8) ____________________ that their parents may have been
middle or working class, many of today’s wealthy Britons achieved success based on
education and enterprise, not birth and inheritance.

3. Identify the one underlined expression (A, B, C or D) that must be changed

in order to correct the sentences.

1. They didn’t think he had been to visit his birthplace since he is a small child.
A B C D
2. Some British people put a ‘GB’ plate on the back of their car so that to show that the
A B
car is from Great Britain when they drive to other countries, even though it seems rather
odd. C D

3. When cooking previously frozen vegetables, use about half as much time as you would
A B
for fresh vegetables because becoming softer after they have been kept in a freezer.
C D
4. For it was late, they stopped near a stream in order to rest the horses and so as not to
A B C
get lost while riding through the forest.
D
5. Much as I liked her paintings, I couldn’t act as she was Picasso or someone like that
A B
when she clearly was a beginner, though very good for a beginner, of course.
C D

4. Choose the correct words/ phrases. Sometimes both are correct.

1. Unless it had been/ If it hadn’t been for my friends, I wouldn’t have the job.
2. You’ll be really sorry unless you take/ if you don’t take the opportunity.
3. This shirt is still dirty even though/ even if I’ve washed it twice.
4. They drank from the stream, even though/ even if they knew it was polluted.
5. I’ll continue to sing my songs even though/ even if I never sell another record.
6. We’ll go ahead with the project even though/ even if our partners pull out.

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 7. Even though/ Even if the building was I perfect condition, it would still be
impossible to use it for modern offices.
8. The club will have to close if we can’t attract/ unless we can attract more
members.
9. What will you do unless you go/ if you don’t go away for the weekend?
10. It was the best race seen in the stadium before that/ since Howe beat Razark in
1989.
11. The car skidded to a halt as/ meanwhile we were approaching the bridge.
12. He has lived next door to us for years, yet/ however we hardly ever see him.
13. They met for tea at a café in New Street and afterwards/ since they went shopping.
14. We all sat there gloomily, meanwhile/ while Stuart smiled to himself.
15. We’ve planted the bush in the middle of the garden so/ so that we can water it
easily.

5. Underline the adverb clauses in the following sentences and identify their
function.

1. Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a life as possible.

………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Although I often eat out, I have rarely seen a restaurant so filled with smoke.
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. No one was at home when I phoned.
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. As they came over the top of the hill, they could see the clear blue ocean lay in front of
them.
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. After I paint the outside of the house I’m going to decorate the kitchen.
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. As you gradually get better at the job, you’ll find that it comes easier.
………………………………………………………………………………………

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7. The film is unusual in that there are only four actors in it.
………………………………………………………………………………………
8. It all happened so quickly that I never got a good look at his face.
………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Though Fred failed to score himself, he helped Jones scored two goals.
………………………………………………………………………………………
10. While the arguments went on in the committee room, Henry sat quietly outside.
………………………………………………………………………………………
11. It was just in time. As I had taken my seat, the concert started.
………………………………………………………………………………………
12. I had no sooner lit the barbecue than it started to rain.
………………………………………………………………………………………
13. Since all the cakes looked good, she couldn’t decide which to choose.
………………………………………………………………………………………
14. If computers could think likes humans, then more people would lose their job.
………………………………………………………………………………………
15. I’ve been left to do all the work since Ron and bill are on holiday.
………………………………………………………………………………………
16. He kept the speech vague in order that he didn’t have to commit himself to one side or
the other.
………………………………………………………………………………………
17. He has such a long journey to work that he has to be in the car for as many as 3 hours
a day.
………………………………………………………………………………………
18. Since he was going to be living in Sweden for some time, he thought he should read
something about the country.
………………………………………………………………………………………
19. Did you give up your job in order that you could take care of your mother?
………………………………………………………………………………………
20. The ice was so thick that there was no danger of the skaters falling through.
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………………………………………………………………………………………
21. Much as I liked the snow, it was good to get back to some warm weather.
………………………………………………………………………………………
22. Even if he loses the election, the president will still control foreign policy.
………………………………………………………………………………………
23. I’d be able to visit Jim first thing in the morning if I stay in Manchester over night.
………………………………………………………………………………………
24. However hard he pushed, he just couldn’t get the door open.
………………………………………………………………………………………
25. Mr Townsend was on holiday so he wasn’t considered.
………………………………………………………………………………………
26. We might soon be making a profit if all will go according to the plan.
………………………………………………………………………………………
27. Parents become good at holding a conversation while they are also keeping a watchful
eye on their children.
………………………………………………………………………………………
28. Supposing that they ask me why resigned from my job, what would I say?
………………………………………………………………………………………
29. We just don’t have the money to do the work, however necessary you think it is.
………………………………………………………………………………………
30. You can’t travel on this train unless you have a reservation.
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Complete the sentences. Punctuate carefully. Pay special attention to verb
tense usage.

1. Since I came to …………………………………………………………………………

2. Just as I was falling asleep last night ……………………………………………………
3. I’ll help you with your homework as soon as I ………………………………………….
4. I was late. By the time I got to the airport ……………………………………………….
5. One of my friends gets nervous every time ……………………………………………...
6. I will be here until I ……………………………………………………………………...
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7. ……………………………………….………………………………… as long as I live.
8. I heard …………………………………… while I ……………………………………...
9. Once summer comes ……………………………………………………………………..
10. Shortly before I …………………………………………………………………………
11. I have been in ..…. for…….. By the time I leave, I ……………………………………
12. The last time I …………………………………………………………………………..
13. The next time you ………………………………………………………………………
14. I ……………..………. just as soon as ………………………………………………..
15. Not long after I …………………………………………………………………………
16. I had already ………………………….. when …………………………………………
17. Whenever ……………………………………………………………………………….
18. Ever since ………………………………………………………………………………
19. Now that I’ve finally finished …………………………………………………………..
20. Since it is too expensive ………………………………………………………………..
21. After having finished my ..……………………………………………………………
22. Before going to ……………………………………………………………………….
23. Since coming to ……………………………………………………………………….
24. Sitting in the park the other day ……………………………………………………….
25. Having heard a strange noise in other room ……………………………………………
26. Being new on the job …………………………………………………………………..
27. Being he largest city in the U.S.A ……………………………………………………
28. Upon reaching our destination ………………………………………………………….
29. Receiving no answer when he knocked on the door ………………………………….
30. Exhausted by the long hours of work …………………………………………………..
31. Even if I ………………………………………………………………………………...
32. Because I ………………………………………………………………………………..
33. By the time I ……………………………………………………………………………
34. Even though I …………………………………………………………………………...
35. The next time I ………………………………………………………………………….
36. Until I …………………………………………………………………………………...
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37. Every time I …………………………………………………………………………….
38. In the event that you ……………………………………………………………………
39. Unless I …………………………………………………………………………………
40. Since I …………………………………………………………………………………..
41. Only if I ………………………………………………………………………………...
42. Now that I ………………………………………………………………………………
43. While some people are …………………………………………………………………
44. While I was walking ……………………………………………………………………
45. Because she ……………………………………………………………………………..

7. Underline the adverb clauses in the following. Change the adverb clauses to
adverb phrases if possible. Make any necessary changes in punctuation,
capitalization, or word order.

Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher of the deaf in Boston, invented the first telephone. One
day in 1875, while he was running a test on his latest attempt to create a machine that could
carry voices, he accidentally spilled acid on his coat. Naturally, he called for his assistant,
Thomas A. Watson, who was in another room. Bell said, “Mr Watson, come here. I want
you.” When Watson heard words coming from the machine, he immediately realized that
their experiments had at least been successful. He rushed excitedly into the other room to
tell Bell that he had heard his words over the machine.

After Bell had successfully tested the new apparatus again and again, he confidently
announced his invention to the world. For the most part, scientists appreciated his
accomplishment, but the general public did not understand the revolutionary nature of
Bell’s invention. Because they believed the telephone was a toy with little practical
application, most people paid little attention to Bell’s announcement.

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2. Wolves are much misunderstood animals. Because many people believe that wolves
eagerly kill human beings, they fear them. However, the truth is that wolves avoid any
contact with human beings. Wildlife biologists in the United States say there is no
documented case of wolves attacking humans in the lower 48 states. More people are hurt
and killed by buffaloes in Yellowstone Park than have ever been hurt by wolves in North
America.

Because they are strictly carnivorous, wolves hunt large animals such as elk and deer, as
well as their mainstay, small animals such as mice and rabbits. And they are particularly
fond of sheep. Killing ranchers’ livestock has helped lead to wolves’ bad reputation among
people.

Because it was relentlessly trapped, and shot by ranchers and hunters, the timber wolf, a
subspecies of the gray wolf, was eradicated in the lower 48 states by the 1940s. Not one
wolf remained. In the 1970s, after they realized a mistake had been made, U.S. lawmakers
passed laws to protect wolves.

Long ago, wolves could be found in almost areas of the Northern Hemisphere throughout
Asia, Europe, and North America. Today, after they have been unremittingly destroyed for
centuries, they are found in few places, principally in sparsely populated areas of Alaska,
Minnesota, Canada, and the northernmost regions of Russia and China.

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PRODUCTION

GROUP WORK

- Look at the pictures and write a simple story (200-300 words), using
at least 5 noun clauses, 5 relative clauses, 5 adverbial clauses in the
forms of finite clauses.
- Underline all FINITE CLAUSES in the story, and then identify the type
and function of each one.

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CHAPTER TWO: NON-FINITE CLAUSES

INTRODUCTION: FINITE AND NONFINITE CLAUSES

A. FINITE CLAUSES

Clauses contain at least a verb phrase:

 [MC [VP Stop!]]

 [MC David [VP composed an aria] when he was twelve.]
 [MC My solicitor [VP sent me a letter] yesterday.]

Notes:
MC: Main Clause
VP: Verb Phrase

Finite verb phrases carry tense, and the clauses containing them are finite clauses.

 She writes home every day. (finite clause -- present tense verb)
 She wrote home yesterday. (finite clause -- past tense verb)

B. NON-FINITE CLAUSES

Nonfinite verb phrases do not carry tense nor form the predicate by themselves. Their
main verb is either a to-infinitive, a bare infinitive, an -ing form or an -ed form.

 David loves to play the piano.

 Harry had always wanted to raise a big family.
 Harry was proud to have served in the army.
 We made David play the piano.
 Leaving home can be very traumatic.
 Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
 The winner is the person scoring the most points in the game.
 Written in 1864, it soon became a classic.
 Although raised on a farm, Harry had no interest in animals.
 Ann only drinks juice made from fresh fruit grown organically.
 I was quite flattered at first, being asked to work with one of the professors.

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 These non-finite clauses are more compact and less explicit than finite clauses as they
are not marked for tense and modality, and they frequently lack an explicit subject and
subordinator. To interpret a non-finite clause, it is necessary to use clues from the
main clause and often also from the wider context.

C. NON-FINITE CLAUSES vs. FINITE CLAUSES

Non-finite clauses Finite clauses

 I don’t know what to write about.  I don’t know what I should

write about.

 We’re very disappointed to hear  We’re very disappointed now

that you can’t come. that we hear that you can’t
come.

 Several insurance companies have  Several insurance companies

now reluctantly made the decision have now reluctantly made the
to withdraw from the American decision that they should
market. withdraw from the American
market.
 Children under the age of
 Children under the age of fourteen fourteen are not allowed into
are not allowed into the cinema the cinema unless they are
unless accompanied by an adult. accompanied by an adult.

 As he was crossing, he lifted the

 Crossing, he lifted the rolled rolled umbrella high and
umbrella high and pointed to show pointed to show cars, buses,
cars, buses, speeding trucks, and speeding trucks, and cabs.
cabs.
 Since we didn’t have anytime
 Not having anytime to spare, we to spare, we couldn’t visit all
couldn’t visit all the places we the places we would have liked
would have liked to. to.
 Watching you working so hard  It makes me feel guilty when I
makes me feel guilty. watch you working so hard.
 His now knowing the secret creates  The fact that he now knows the
a rather difficult situation. secret creates a rather difficult
situation.

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A. INFINITIVE CLAUSES
I. USE

We use both the full infinitive (e.g. to drink) and the bare infinitive (e.g. drink) to
make infinitive clauses.

1. The full infinitive clause is used:

1.1. with do/need/dare when they are used as full verbs

- I did it to please you.
- You don’t need to go yet.
- He won’t dare to disobey his teacher.
1.2. with adjectives expressing emotion or desire
- I was very glad to see you.
- He is happy/delighted/content to be with us.
- George was anxious/eager to get home.
- I am very pleased to have been of help.
1.3. with some other adjectives, e.g. fit, able, etc.
- These shoes are not fit to wear.
- Richard is sure to come; he’ll be the first to come and last to leave.

Here is a list of adjectives that you will often find in such constructions.

afraid delighted hesitant sad

ahead determined liable shocked
amazed disappointed likely sorry
anxious eager lucky surprised
Apt easy pleased upset
ashamed eligible possible unable
bound fortunate proud worthy
careful glad ready wrong
certain happy reluctant
content hard right

Some adverbs also take this construction, e.g. far, best:

- He knows how far to go.

- She explained how best to cook the meat.

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1.4. after a noun group that includes an ordinal number, a superlative, or a word like
next, last, or only
- She was the first woman to be elected to the council.
- Mr. Hung was the oldest person to be chosen.
- The only person to speak was James.
1.5. after some nouns

- Mark forgot about his promise to go shopping.

= Mark promised to go shopping, but then he arranged to play golf.

Here are some other nouns that can take this construction: agreement, arrangement,
decision, demand, desire, failure, offer, plan, refusal, tendency, threat

1.6. after some verbs

- She agreed to let us use her flat.
- I decided not to go out for the evening.
- England failed to win a place in the finals.

Here are some other nouns that can take this construction: choose, expect, fail, hope,
intend, learn, manage, mean, offer, promise, pretend, refuse, tend, want

1.7. after know and certain other verbs with wh-words: ask, explain, imagine, learn,
understand, decide, forget, remember, wonder

- I don’t know how to tell you.

- She knows where to find the key.
- You will soon learn when to use that construction.
- Show him how to do the exercise.
- He knows not to speak (= that he must not speak) when the Headmaster is
speaking.

1.8. with to/in order to/so as to in expressing purpose

- We went to live in France to/in order to/so as to learn French.

- She was sent to England to/in order to/so as to be educated.

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1.9. when there is a change of subject, we may use for … + infinitive
- I bought a car (in order) for my son to learn to drive.
= I bought a car in order that my son can learn to drive.
1.10. in ‘absolute’ constructions
- To tell you the truth, I don’t know what the answer is.
- To hear him talk, you would think he was a millionaire.
- To cut a long story short, …
- To continue with what I was saying, …
1.11. sometimes in exclamatory sentences, or in wishes unlikely to be realized
- Oh! To be young again just for one day.
- Oh! To be in England.

Notes

 The particle to without the infinitive: when the to refers to a verb that has
previously been used.

- I shall go if I want to (go).

- He won’t work harder than he needs to (work).

- He would like to come but he’s afraid he won’t be able to (come).

- ‘Will you come to dinner with me?’ ‘I should love to (come).’

 Some verbs are followed by an object + to-infinitive. The object of the verb is the
subject of the to-infinitive clause.

- I asked her to leave. Phil / expected / Martha / to stay at home all day
s v o1 o2 s v o1 o2
- They advised us not to wait around too long.
- I could get someone to do it.
- I didn’t want him to go.

Other verbs used in this structure: allow, encourage, expect, force, invite, persuade,
teach, order, remind, tell

 Verbs used in the passive + to-infinitive clause: believe, consider, feel, find,
know, report, say, suppose, think, understood
- He is said to have died a natural death.
- Is it thought to be a good thing?

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  not to can be used to refer to alternatives

- We went to France not to learn French, but to learn architecture.

 Can be replaced by and + verb to describe an unexpected event

- We came home after our holiday to find our garden neat and tidy. (= and found)
- He returned after the war, only to be told that his wife had left him.
(= and was told that)
- He left home, never to return/to be seen again.

2. The bare infinitive clause is used:

2.1. after verbs of perception
(e.g. see, hear, feel, smell, watch, notice, observe, perceive)

- I suddenly felt something brush against my arm.

- He’s got a great voice – You should hear him sing.
- I didn’t see anyone come into the room.
- Jill watched the children build sandcastles.
- He felt his blood run cold.

2.2. after verbs of facilitation and causation (e.g. have, help, let, make)

- I’ll have Alicia bring something up.

- Can you help me find my glasses?
- Her parents won’t let her travel to another country.
- The film made me cry.

Notes

 If these verbs are used in the passive voice, the infinitive takes to.
o He was heard to cry.
o They had been made to work.
o He was seen to take the money.
 The verb help sometimes, and generally in American English, is followed by the
infinitive with –to, e.g.
o He helped me (to) compose the letter.
o Will you help me (to) clean the car.

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II. FUNCTION

1. Subject

- To take sides is a mistake. -> Non-finite clause, to inf, noun clause, subject of is
- To turn back now would be a mistake.
- To maintain a friendship is difficult.
- To coach a leading team has been his lifelong ambition.

2. Extraposed subject Real subject

- It is a mistake to take sides.

- It would be a mistake to turn back now. -> to inf, noun clause, subject of would be

- It is difficult to maintain a friendship.

- It has been his lifelong ambition to coach a leading team.

3. Subject Complement/Subject Predicative

- All I did was hit him on the head -> bare inf, noun clause, subject complement of was

- To live like this is to enjoy life. liking verb: to be verb

- My goal now is to look to the future.
- What you do is (to) mix the egg with flour.
- What I like is to swim in the sea and to lie on the warm sand.
- What you should do is try to open it with a knife.
- Mr. Lang is understood to favor more traditional teaching methods.
- A third man is missing and is believed to have been taken into police custody.

4. Direct Object bổ ngữ cho động từ

- I want to know the answer. -> to inf, noun clause, direct obj of want
s v o
- He must learn how to work hard and to save money.
- I should like to have been told the result earlier.
- He upset you very much, and I hate to see that.
- Phil expected Martha to stay at home all day.
s v o1 o2
- She said that she would like her mother to stay with her.
- We want the students to share some of the excitement triggered by recent
discoveries.
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 Verbs taking this structure include many verbs of intention, desire, or decision, such
as choose, expect, would like, need, prefer, want, wish

5. Object Complement/Object Predicative bổ nghĩa cho obj đứng trước

- She considers him to be a good man.

- I have always assumed her to be British.
- I found them to be charming and very friendly.

Verbs taking this structure include cognition verbs, such as assume, believe,
consider, understand; as well as verbs of experience/discovery/ find.

6. Part of Adjective Phrase/Adjective Complement bổ nghĩa cho tính từ đứng trước nó

- I am very glad to see you. -> to inf, noun clause, adj complement of glad
- I am very pleased to have been of help.
- The lamb is ready to be eaten.
- She was hesitant to tell the coach of her plan.
- She was reluctant to tell her parents, also.
- But she would not have been content to play high school ball forever.
- The parents were lucky to have found this specialist for their sick child.

7. Part of Noun Phrase Noun complement

 Post-modifier of a noun or an indefinite pronoun
- This is a point to bear in mind.
= This is a point which we should bear in mind.

- Measures to bring down unemployment have already been considered by the

Government.
= Measures that will bring down unemployment have already been considered by
the Government.
 Post-modifier of an indefinite pronoun
I need to go to the market to buy something to eat.

 Noun complement
- I now regret having made a promise to join in the scheme
= I now regret having made a promise that I would join in the scheme.

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 - The whole family made the decision to emigrate.
= The whole family made the decision that they should emigrate.

Notes

 Structurally, postmodifying clauses are not complete (i.e. they have a gap), and
they could not stand on their own as independent sentences.
 Noun complement clauses actually present the complete content of the head
noun, i.e. they do not have a gap corresponding in meaning to the head noun.

8. Accusative infinitive construction, i.e. Noun/Pronoun + Infinitive that form the

object of a verb

Accusative Infinitive

I made/had him do it.

They let us go.

I watch her come into the room.

9. Adverbial, generally of purpose or result.

- I went there to see him. -> to inf, adverbial clause of purpose, modifying went

- Mary has gone to get some fruit.

- He is working late to make up for his absence yesterday.
- You should eat to live, not live to eat.
- To succeed again they will have to improve their fitness and concentration.

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III. PRACTICE

1. Pick out the infinitive clauses and describe the function of each in the following
sentences.

1. Will you teach me to play tennis?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. The dog wants something to eat.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. To complete that book in three months was a great achievement.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. That seems hard to do but is less difficult than it looks.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
5. I saw him run the mile in four minutes.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
6. I tremble to think what your father will say.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. The men have come to cut down the tree.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
8. To see is to believe.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
9. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of honor.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
10. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

2. Construct sentences each containing an infinitive clause, using one of the

following as the finite verb in each sentence.

want, see, must, let, hope, ought, hear, intend, dare, like, had rather, do,
help, need, need hardly

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Construct five sentences, each one using one of the following adjectives plus the
infinitive of a verb.

difficult, impossible, correct, unfit, afraid

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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4. Complete the following so as to make complete sentences.
1. ……………………………………….. if he wishes to.
2. ……………………………………….. whether I shall be able to.
3. ……………………………………….. faster than he needs to.
4. ……………………………………….. I shall be glad to.
5. ……………………………………….. you certainly ought to.

What characteristic of the infinitive do these sentences illustrate?

5. Comment on each situation. Use the to-infinitive structure.

David offered his help. No one else did.
 David was the only person to offer his help.
1. Olivia’s daughter swam a length of the pool. No other girl as young as her did that.
Olivia’s daughter was ………………………………………………………………
2. The secretaries got a pay rise. No one else did.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The pilot left the aircraft. Everyone else had left before him.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Mrs. Harper became Managing Director. No other woman had done that before.
……………………………………………………………………………………….

6. Replace the finite adjectival clauses in italics by non-finite clauses, using the
infinitive. Do not change the punctuation.
This is a point which we should bear in mind.
 This is a point to bear in mind.
1. There are more than fifty proposals that will be discussed at the conference.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Our company builds houses that suit many different types of purchasers.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. There is still a long way that we must go before we reach our sales targets.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Before our cars leave the factory, there is an exhaustive series of tests that must be
passed.
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 ……………………………………………………………………………………….
5. The chemist gave her the tablets, which were to be taken tree times daily.
……………………………………………………………………………………….

7. Rewrite the sentences, substituting a non-finite clause for the finite noun clauses
in italics, using the infinitive.

The whole family made the decision that they would emigrate.

 The whole family made the decision to emigrate.

1. The employers have at last expressed a desire that they should re-open talks with
the unions.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
2. I now regret having made a promise that I would join in the scheme.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Six companies have signed an agreement that they should share the costs of
research and development.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
4. What our team seems to lack at the moment is the determination that it will win.
……………………………………………………………………………………….
5. How often have I made a resolution that I will give up smoking!
……………………………………………………………………………………….

8. Define the function of the infinitive clause in each of the following sentences after
you have completed the sentences.

1. To speak plainly ………………………………………………………………..

2. To be brief …………………………………………………………..………….
3. …………………………………………………………….. just how fast to go.
4. ………………………………………………………… how to climb the stairs.

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B. GERUND CLAUSES ving

I. USE
1. The following verbs take a gerund clause after them:

advise, avoid, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy, escape, excuse,
fancy, finish, forbid, imagine, mind, miss, postpone, practice, risk, stop, suggest,
understand

- I enjoy traveling.
- He’s finished mending the car.
- We postponed making any decisions.
- I simply adore reading what you write.
- I detest going to the cinema.
- We heard whispering.
- His physician advised leaving home for a week.
- They denied having avoided me. (= They denied that they had avoided me.)

2. The gerund clause is modified by a possessive adjective or by the possessive form

of nouns that can take this form.

- It’s no use/good your telling me not to worry.

- He was chosen because of his being a fully qualified engineer.
- She was annoyed at your saying that.
- Please excuse my interrupting you.
- The firm has deferred my going on holiday until next month.
- He doesn’t deny his breaking of the agreement.
- Your being right doesn’t necessarily mean my being wrong.
- Mary’s grumbling annoyed her husband.

Notes

The possessive form tends not to be used with common nouns or even proper
nouns before the gerund clause.

o I object to the car being left there. (NOT the car’s)

o I appreciated John helping me. (Rather than John’s)
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3. Verb + noun/pronoun + gerund clause

mind, dislike, suggest, imagine, advocate, doubt

- Do you mind me coming as well?

- I can’t imagine him working in an office.
- I dislike people telling me what to think.
(No passive voice: People are disliked …)

4. The gerund clause is used after the phrases: it’s no good, it’s no use, is worth, to be
fond of, capable of, sick of, look forward to.

- It’s no use crying over spilt milk.

- If a thing is worth doing, it’s worth doing well.
- I’m tired of meeting the same people day after day.

II. FUNCTION

1. Subject
- Working in these conditions is a pleasure. -> gerund, noun clause, sub of is
- Cramming for tests is not a good study strategy.
- It’s nice seeing him again.
- It’s no use/good crying over spilt milk.
- Being ignorant of the law is not accepted as an excuse for breaking the law.

2. Complement
- His hobby is collecting stamps. -> gerund, noun clause, sub comp of his hobby
- To keep money you have found is stealing.
- Seeing is believing.
- The only thing that interests her is dancing.

3. Direct Object
- I remember seeing him. -> gerund, noun clause, direct obj of remember
- She likes dancing.
- I look forward to seeing my old friends.
- I enjoy them/their playing the guitar.
- Don’t delay your sending in of the application form.

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4. Object of a preposition tân ngữ của giới từ
- He left without saying anything. -> gerund, noun clause, obj of a preposition without
- Sue is in charge of organizing the meeting.
- She never realized her ambition of winning an Olympic gold medal.
- He began by explaining the meaning of certain words.

5. Apposition to a noun noun complement

- My greatest/recurring dream, going back home, has been fulfilled/realized.
- I had only one desire, leaving for home. -> gerund, noun clause, noun complement of one desire
- His burning desire, being buried next to his wife, has been realized.

III. PRACTICE

1. Underline the gerund clauses in the following sentences and label how they
function in the sentence (subject, direct object, subject complement, object of
preposition, etc).

1. Swimming keeps me in shape.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
9. My father's occupation was farming.

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
10. My desire, traveling, may happen soon.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
11. Writing is sometimes difficult.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
12. By saving, we can do our traveling.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
13. Some people give gossiping too much time.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
14. Do you watch boxing or wrestling?
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

2. Complete the sentences, using a gerund construction.

1. The public authorities should prohibit ………………………………….……..
2. I strongly resent your ………………...………………………………….……..
3. It would be unwise to defer …………………………………………..….……..
4. Will the new job involve your ………………………………………..….……..
5. Why don’t you stop …………………… if you dislike …………….…..……..?

3. Rewrite the sentences, substituting a non-finite gerund clause for the finite
clauses in italics. The object or possessive form of a pronoun or noun will be
required before the gerund in some cases.
I didn’t recall that he said any such thing.
 I didn’t recall him saying any such thing.
 I didn’t recall his having said any such thing.

1. He didn’t even acknowledge that he had received the invitation.

………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The witness reported that he had seen a dark saloon car parked outside the bank at
the time of the robbery.
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….

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 3. I can’t imagine that he would ever agree to such a proposition.
………………………………………………………………………………….
4. No one doubted that he was sincere in his beliefs.
………………………………………………………………………………….
5. The headmaster suggested that I should try the examination again the following
year.
………………………………………………………………………………….
6. The accused admitted that he had received the stolen goods.
………………………………………………………………………………….
7. I don’t recollect that I actually promised to help you.
………………………………………………………………………………….

4. Rewrite the sentences, substituting a finite noun clause for the non-finite clause in
italics.

His now knowing the secret creates a rather difficult situation.

 The fact that he now knows the secret creates a rather difficult situation.

1. The teacher insisted on the students’ arriving punctually for their lessons.
………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Being ignorant of the law is not accepted as an accuse for breaking the law.
………………………………………………………………………………….
3. I am surprised at your thinking London a dull place to live in.
………………………………………………………………………………….
4. A conceited man often cannot understand the reasons for people dislike him.
………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Your having accepted this job means your having to travel much further to work.
………………………………………………………………………………….
6. I refused to believe his having told me the truth.
………………………………………………………………………………….
7. The child’s criminal tendencies were put down to the fact of his coming from a
broken home.
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 ………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
8. He insisted on my checking again to see that the train left at 5.30, despite my
having already assured him that it did.
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Before buying this painting, you should make sure of its being genuine.
………………………………………………………………………………….
10. On entering the hotel, we immediately realized the reason for its being so popular
with tourists.
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….

C. PARTICIPLE CLAUSES - Phải là 1 câu có mệnh đề chính phụ, và mình tập trung vào mệnh đề phụ
- Luôn ở quá khứ

1. USE I met him while i was living in Da Lat -> i met him while living in da lat
1.1. Present Participle Clauses - Chủ động, chung chủ ngữ I và động từ chính là living
- I met him while living in Egypt.
- I saw children huddling against the wall. (Children were seen huddling …)
- Having wiped out smallpox, scientists now contemplate the elimination of polio
and other diseases.
- Standing on the church tower, we could see the whole village below us.
- Seeing (= because he saw) that it was raining, George put on his mackintosh.
là câu rút gọn chủ động của reduce adverbial clause/ relative clause, rút từ mệnh đề phụ động từ chính thành
1.2. Past Participle Clauses ving
là câu rút gọn bị động của reduce adverbial clause/ relative clause, rút từ mệnh đề phụ,
- Covered with confusion, I left the room. động từ đổi thành v3/ed
- Presented with proposals to adopt the Chinese program in their own nations,
many people might object violently.
- Travel-stained and tired, the pilgrims rejoiced to see the inn. The concert which was
- The concert given by Dang Thai Son was a great success. <- given by dts, was a great
- Born and bred a countryman, he was bewildered by London. success
- Bị động, động từ
- Viewed from a distance, the island of Nepenthe looked like a cloud. chính là given
- Although built before the war, the engine is still in perfect order.

107
Notes

 We normally place subjects immediately before the infinitive or the

participle clause:

o Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to give the job to Nancy.
o The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
o It would be better for you to tell everybody.
o Her aunt having left the room, I declared my passionate love for Celia.
o With the tree growing tall, we get more shade.

 Participle clauses with verbs of causation and perception

This construction is similar to the ‘accusative infinitive’ construction used with
the infinitive. This construction is used after ‘sense’ verbs like see, hear, find,
and causation verbs like make, want, like, leave, stop.

Accusative Participle
I saw him running for the train.
I could hear the boy playing in the field.
He was glad to find the fire burning brightly.
He soon made his presence felt.
He wanted his eggs fried.
I should like this matter settled immediately.

Some more examples:

o He left them making their calculations.
o Nobody can stop him doing what he wants to.
o Did you see her talking to the postman?

 Misrelated participles

a. The word to which the participle relates should be the same as the subject of the
verb.

108
 Correctly related Wrongly related

1. Walking through the park, we saw 1. Walking through the park, the
a lovely show of daffodils. daffodils made a lovely sight.

(It was ‘we’ who were ‘walking’) (It was not the daffodils who were
walking.)

2. Standing on the church tower, we 2. Standing on the church tower, the

could see the whole village below whole village could be seen.
us.
(It was ‘we’ who were ‘standing’)

3. Travel-stained and tired, the 3. Travel-stained and tired, the sight

pilgrims rejoiced to see the inn. of the inn was very welcome to
(It was ‘the pilgrims’ who were the pilgrims.
‘travel-stained and tired’)

b. However, there are cases where a participle may be found unattached and
not logically related to the subject of the verb. This occurs in a number of
expressions so frequently used that they are accepted as correct, e.g. broadly
speaking, generally speaking, strictly speaking, roughly speaking, talking
of …, all things considered, allowing for…, supposing …, things being as
they are, taking everything into account.
- Generally speaking, a footballer of 20 is better than one of 40.
- Talking of football, have you seen the Italian team play?
- Strictly speaking, you have no right to be here.
- It has cost, roughly speaking, about $150.
- All things considered, he is better off now than he was a year ago.
- Allowing for inflation, the cost of the new road is around $17 million.
- Counting unexpected expenses, it cost $35.
- Barring exceptions, only members are admitted.
- Things being as they are, we cannot hold him responsible for the accident.
- Taking everything into account, the holiday cost less than I had expected.

 Joining sentences with participle clause

109
 He walked out of the room. He slammed the door behind
Simple sentence
him.
Compound He walked out of the room and slammed the door behind
sentence him.
Participle
He walked out of the room, slamming the door behind him.
construction

 Punctuation

When a participial clause begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after

the phrase.

- Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

- Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If a participial clause comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off

with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the
sentence.

- Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

- The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence,
no commas should be used:

- The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special
award.
- The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial clause comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually

precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the
phrase directly follows the word it modifies.

- Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.

(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
- The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)

2. FUNCTION

110
2.1. As adjective clause equivalents
Nhận diện relative: câu giữa
- There were a lot of boys in the field playing football (= who were playing
football).
- The woman driving the car (= who was driving the car) indicated that she was
going left and then turned right.
- The concert given (= which was given) by Dang Thai Son was a great success.
- The system used (= the system which is used) in this school is very successful.
-> past participle, relative clause, qualifying is
2.2. As adverb clause equivalents
Nhận diện ad clause: tách câu, có dấu phẩy, phân biệt giữa 2 mệnh đề
a. Participle clause in place of clause of reason

- Being (= as/because he was) naturally cautious, he read the letter twice before
saying anything. -> present participle, adverb clause of reason, modifying read
- Seeing (= because he saw) that it was raining, George put on his raincoat.
- Born and bred a countryman (= because he was born and bred a countryman), he
was bewildered by London.
- Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk.
Bỏ từ kết nối

b. Participle clause in place of clause of time

- Since phoning you (= since I phoned you) this morning, I have changed my plan.
- Other time conjunctions preceding present participles are: after, before, since,
when, while. On and in can be used to mean when and while.
- On finding (= when I found) the front door open, I became suspicious.
- In trying (= while I was trying) to open the can, I cut my hand.
- While flying over the Channel, the pilot saw that he thought to be a meteorite.
- Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she began to read.
Present thì có thể bỏ hoặc ko, past bắt buộc bỏ từ nối
The past participle can be used without any conjunction in front of it in place of the
passive:

- Viewed from a distance (= when it was viewed from a distance), the island of
Nepenthe looked like a cloud.

c. Participle clause in place of clause of concession contrast

111
 - While admitting (= while he admitted) that he had received the stolen jewelry, he
denied having taken part in the robbery.
- Although built (= although it was built) before the war, the engine is still in perfect
order.
Giữ lại từ nối

d. Participle clause in place of conditionals

- If taken literally, the sentence is nonsensical.

- If travelling north (= if you are travelling north), you must change at Leeds.
- Unless paying (= unless you pay) by credit card, please pay in cash.
giữ lại từ nối
2.3. Present participle clause in place of co-ordinate clause compound, nối bằng and, đọc mà
thấy ý nào phụ hơn thì rút

- She lay awake all night, recalling (= and recalled) the events of the day.
- He walked out of the room, slamming (= and slammed) the door behind him.

Notes

Where the non-finite clauses are adverbial (as they are in the sentences above), the
two clauses in each sentence may be reversible:

a. The pilot saw what he thought to be a meteorite while flying over the Channel.
b. The sentence is nonsensical if taken literally.

It would not be possible to reverse the order of the clauses in sentence a if the
conjunction while were omitted, without changing the meaning:

 Flying over the Channel, the pilot saw what he thought to be a meteorite.
(i.e., the pilot was flying)

 The pilot saw what he thought to be a meteorite flying over the Channel.
(i.e., the meteorite was flying)

3. PRESENT PARTICIPLE CLAUSES VS. GERUND CLAUSES

112
 Present Participle clauses Gerund clauses

Choosing his words with care, the Choosing the prettiest girl in the
speaker suggested that the competition proved very difficult.
government was mistaken in its
attitude.
(Adverbial clause of time) (Subject)

Having picked the team to meet India He regretted having picked Jones as
in the final test match, the selectors captain of the team.
now have to wait till Tuesday to
discover whether or not their choice
was wise.

(Adverbial clause of time) (Object)

He wasn’t asked to take on the He felt very flattered at being

chairmanship of the society, being considered the best man to take on
considered insufficiently popular with the chairmanship of the society.
all members.

(Adverbial clause of reason) (Object of a preposition)

Having been told that bad weather He denied having been told to
was on the way, the climbers decided service the engine before take-off.
to put off their attempt on the Eiger
until the following week.

(Adverbial clause of reason) (Object)

4. PRACTICE
113
1. Replace the finite clauses in italics by non-finite clauses, using participles, and
making any necessary changes in word order, e.g.

When he heard a noise, he went outside to see what was happening.

 Hearing a noise, he went outside to see what was happening.

When he had listened to the speaker for five minutes, he got up and left.
 Having listened to the speaker for five minutes, he got up and left.

1. As he had witnessed the crime, he was expected to give evidence in court.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. When the editor learned that his newspaper had been taken over by a rival
publisher, he resigned from his position.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. I declined his offer of a loan and said that I didn’t like owing people money.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. The demonstrator, who protested violently, was led away by the police.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
5. When I visit a strange city, I like to have a guide-book with me.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
6. Motorists who intend to take their cars with them to the Continents are advised to
make early reservations.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. As he had been warned that bad weather lay ahead, the ship’s captain changed
course.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
8. Now that I have heard your explanation, I am more inclined to agree with you.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

9. If one may judge by what the critics say, this new play is worth seeing.
114
 (Unrelated participle)
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
10. Now that spring has come, we may perhaps look forward to better weather.
(Absolute construction)
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

2. In each of the following sentences, underline the participial clause(s), draw a line
to the word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly. Remember that
some sentences may not need punctuation.

1. Starting out as an army officer Karen's father was frequently transferred.

2. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and girls to the
party.

3. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.

4. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible about

them before applying for admission.

5. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.

3. Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence. Change the second sentence of
the pair into a reduced relative clause. Identify the name and function of each
reduced clause.
1. Our solar system is in a galaxy. The galaxy is called the Milky Way.
……………………………………………………………………………
2. I come from a city. This city is located in the southern part of the country.
……………………………………………………………………………
3. Anyone must take an entrance examination. Anyone applies to that school.
……………………………………………………………………………
4. The boy drew pictures of people at the airport. The people were waiting for their
planes.

115
 ……………………………………………………………………………
5. Sunlight wakes me up early in the morning. It comes through the window.
……………………………………………………………………………
6. Only a few of the movies are suitable for the children. The movies are shown on
Channel 9.
……………………………………………………………………………
7. I was awakened by the sound of the laughter. It comes from the room next door to
mine.
……………………………………………………………………………
8. The students have become quite proficient in their new language. They attend class
five hours per day.
……………………………………………………………………………
9. Disney World is a famous amusement park. It is located in Orlando, Florida, USA,
and covers a large area of land.
……………………………………………………………………………
10. Do you know the policeman? He is coming toward us.
……………………………………………………………………………

4. Join each of the following pair of sentences, using either present participle
(knowing), past participle (known) or perfect participle (having known).

He got off his horse. He began searching something on the ground.

 Getting off his horse, he began searching something on the ground.

1. I knew that he was poor. I offered to pay his fare.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. We barricaded the windows. We assembled in the hall.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. She became tired of my complaints about the program. She turned it off.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. He found no one at home. He left the house in a bad temper.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
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 5. She hoped to find the will. She searched everywhere.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
6. The criminal removed all traces of his crime. He left the building.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. He realized that he had missed the last train. He began to walk.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
8. He was exhausted by his work. He threw himself on the bed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
9. He had spent all his money. He decided to go home and ask his father for a job.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
10. He escaped from prison. He looked for a place where he could get food.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

5. Rewrite the following sentences by rearranging the words or by adding a word or

words to make them clear and logical.

1. Looking over the outlook, the canyon seemed magnificent.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. Typing my research paper, the keys jammed.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. Playing the piano, my dog started to howl.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. Eating lunch, the doorbell rang.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
5. Having walked several miles, my new shoes hurt.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

6. Join the pairs or groups of sentences, using participles, and making any
necessary changes in word order, e.g.
117
As/When he had finished the painting, he gave a sigh of relief.
 Having finished the painting, he gave a sigh of relief.

The employers issued an ultimatum. They threatened all workers with dismissal if
they didn’t return to work by the following Monday.
 The employers issued an ultimatum, threatening all workers with dismissal if
they didn’t return to work by the following Monday.

1. I was interested to see what would happen. I therefore stayed till the end of the
meeting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. I found I had wasted my time going to the sale. The best bargains had already been
snapped up earlier in the day.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. The rescue party decided that it would be hopeless to carry out a search while the
fog persisted. They put off their rescue bid until the next day.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. He was brought up in the belief that pleasures were sinful. As a result, he now
leads an ascetic life.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

5. The children had a week’s holiday. The school had been closed because of an
influenza epidemic.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

118
 6. One can allow for the fact that the orchestra was under-rehearsed. Even so, last
night’s concert was extremely disappointing.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. We decided not to visit Oxford. It was then the time of the summer vacation. There
were few students in residence.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

FURTHER PRACTICE

1. Underline and classify the function of the non-finite clauses in the following
sentences.

1. My favorite thing to do is collecting actors’ photographs.

……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
2. You must learn to work hard and to deal with difficulties.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
3. She sang when allowed to do so.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
4. The long journey being over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
5. Being cheerful and considerate, he was a delightful companion.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
6. Having been invited to speak, and then being told to keep silent, I shall never come
here again as long as I live.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
7. Since I have been especially invited to speak, for you now to tell me I cannot do so
is quite unpardonable.
119
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
8. Standing here all day, I see many strange faces.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
9. Standing here all day is extremely tiring.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….
10. My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….….

2. Replace the finite clauses in italics (defining relative clauses) by non-finite

clauses, using the present or past participle. Do not add any punctuation, since
the function of the clauses will remain defining.

The thieves took two mail bags that contained registered letters.
 The thieves took two mail bags containing registered letters.

I couldn’t understand the instructions that were given in the manual.

 I couldn’t understand the instructions given in the manual.

1. I haven’t yet had an opportunity to think over the proposals that were made at the
last meeting.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Any control of incomes that is imposed by a government and that is not
negotiated by unions and employers is bound to create discontent.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The school has now moved to new premises which overlook the Thames.
……………………………………………………………………………………..

4. Reports that are now reaching London suggest that the number of casualties that
has been caused by the earthquake may exceed two hundred.
……………………………………………………………………………………..

120
 ……………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Investors receive annually all the interest that has been credited to their account
during the year.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Make this text shorter by creating non-finite clauses where possible.

For all food-lovers who will be sitting at home and who will be looking for something
that is interesting on TV this afternoon, there’s a fabulous new show which is called
‘The Asian Kitchen’, which has been created and which has been produced by Mary
Sah, which begins at 4.30 this afternoon. Among the dishes which will be featured will
be Saucy Tofu, which consists of tofu squares which have been dipped in a special
batter, which have been deep-fried and which have been covered in a creamy peanut
sauce, and Evil Shrimp, which is made with hot peppers which have been sautéed with
other vegetables, and which are served with shrimp which are sizzling in a shallow pool
of red curry. It’s the most delicious thing on TV today!

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

4. Add reduced versions of these adverbial clauses to the following sentences about
problems in London’s Underground railway system.

121
 although it manages as if they were trying

until they make sure although they were frustrated

while they waited once it has been broken since it opened

While waiting in line for buses during a recent one-day train strike, London’s
commuters displayed remarkable patience with their struggling Underground.

1. ………………………………. , most people just shrugged and went back to their

newspapers, ………………………………. to ignore this latest inconvenience.
2. ……………………………….in 1863, the Underground has grown into a
sprawling network of tracks, some of which are in desperate need of repair.
3. ………………………………. to cover its operating costs from fares, the
Underground never seems to have enough money for long-term investment and
maintenance.
4. The government’s argument is that, ………………………………. into several
private companies, each of the system’s smaller parts will be better able to attract
new investment.
5. Opponents of the government’s plan to sell parts of the Underground say that they
should not be allowed to proceed ………………………………. that all existing
lines are safe for passengers.

5. Replace the finite clauses in italics with non-finite clauses, using the non-finite
forms suggested, and making any other necessary changes. (NB. –ing = present
participle or gerund, -ed= past participle, inf. = infinitive)

1. Would anyone who wishes to attend the meeting please notify the
Secretary? (-ing)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
2. We left the meeting, since there was obviously no point in staying.(-ing)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
122
 3. If the situation is looked at in this way, it doesn’t seem so desperate. (-ed)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
4. We had to leave quietly so that we shouldn’t disturb other people. (-inf)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
5. I remember that he once offered to help us if ever we were in trouble? (-ing)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
6. Until the disaster, everyone had believed that the ship was unsinkable. (-inf)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
7. The public official who had been involved in the scandal agreed that he should
offer his resignation. (two clauses: -ed/-inf)
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….

6. Combine each group of sentences to form not more than two complex sentences.
You may make any necessary changes in the disposition of material and in the
wording, but must not change the sense of the original. Skeleton structures have
been suggested for many of the sentences to indicate possible approaches to the
synthesis, but you should feel free to adopt your own approach.

1. No one was watching. The thief first made sure of this. He climbed up a drainpipe.
He climbed up to a window on the first floor. He succeeded in entering the house
through the window. He was not observed.
Having first …, the thief … to a first-floor…, through which … unobserved.

……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
2. I had the opportunity of spending my holiday at sea. I had no experience of sailing.
Nevertheless, I decided to take the opportunity. Some friends of mine invited me to

123
 join them. They were very keen yachtsmen. They wanted to sail round the British
Isles.
Despite …, I decided … when some friends…, who … and who…, invited ...

……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
3. The English queue up for public transport. They do so in an orderly way. Visitors
from the Continent are surprised at this. They innocently join the front of the
queue. They do this when they first arrive in England. Angry glares are given
them. They cannot understand this.

Visitors … at the … in which…, and they … when, on first …, they innocently...

……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
4. I returned to the city. I had been born there. I had been absent for many years.
Many of its narrow streets had been demolished. So had their picturesque houses.
They had made way for shop-lined thoroughfares. These were modern but
undistinguished. I was dismayed to find this.

When …, I was dismayed to …

……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….

124
 5. The headmaster spoke on the dangers of playing on railway tracks. He spoke at
length. Even experienced railwaymen could not always hear the approach of an
express diesel locomotive. He pointed this out. The headmaster then warned the
boys. They would not only be severely punished. They would also risk expulsion
from the school. this would be done if any of them persisted in playing near the
railway.
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….
……………………………………………………………………………………….……….

7. Complete the sentences with your own words. Each sentence contains a Gerund or
an Infinitive.
1. Your not wanting ………………………………………………………………………
2. It’s important for ……………………………………………………………………….
3. I’ll never forget …………………………………………………………………………..
4. Jack advised not ………………………………………………………………………….
5. I’m not willing …………………………………………………………………………...
6. My apartment needs ……………………………………………………………………...
7. …………………………. enough energy ……………………………………………….
8. …………………………. in order to save ………………………………………………
9. …………………………. to be told about ……………………………………………...
10. ………………………….. had just begun ……………… when ………………………
11. Do you think it is easy ………………………………………………………………….
12. ……………………….. my having been ……………………………………………….
13. Have you ever considered ……………………………………………………………..?
14. ………………………. is likely ………………………………………………………..
15. Most people object ……………………………………………………………………
16. ……………………… try to avoid …………………………………………………….
17. The teacher usually lets us …………………………………………………………….
125
18. Could you help me …………………………………………………………………….
19. Do you smell something………………………………………………………………..
20. I felt someone …………………………………………………………………………
21. I got my friend …………………………………………………………………………
22. Sometimes parents make their children ………………………………………………..
23. When I was in the restaurant, I had the waiter …………………………………………
24. I’m more than willing to help you ……………………………………………………...
25. My cousin’s jokes always make me …………………………………………………..
26. We finally got our landlady …………………………………………………………….
27. My parents wouldn’t let me …………………………………………………………….

8. Correct the errors.

1. Stop tell me what to do! Let me to make up my own mind.
2. My English is pretty good, but sometimes I have trouble to understand lecture at
school.
3. When I entered the room, I found my wife to cry over the broken vase that had
belonged to her great- grandmother.
4. Sara is going to spend next year for studying Chinese at a university in Taiwan.
5. I went to the pharmacy for having my prescription to be filled.
6. You shouldn’t let children playing with matches.
7. When I got home, Irene was lying in bed think about what a wonderful time she’s had.
8. When Shelley needed a passport photo, she had her picture taking by a professional
photographer.
9. I’ve finally assembled enough information for beginning writing my thesis.
10. Omar is at the park right now. He is sit on a park bench watch the ducks swimming in
the pond. The sad expression on his face makes me to feel sorry for him.
11. My parents made me to promise to write them once a week.
12. I don’t mind to have a roommate.
13. Most students want return home as soon as possible.
14. When I went to shopping last Saturday, I saw a man to drive his car onto the sidewalk.
126
15. I asked my roommate to let me to use his shoe polish.
16. To learn about another country it is very interesting.
17. I don’t enjoy to play card games.
18. I heard a car door to open and closing.
19. I had my friend to lend me his car.
20. I tried very hard to don’t make any mistakes.
21. You should visit my country. It is too beautiful.
22. The music director tapped his baton for beginning the rehearsal.
23. Some people prefer to save their money to spend it.
24. The task of find a person who could help us wasn’t difficult.
25. All of us needed to went to the cashier’s window.
26. I am looking forward to go to swim in the ocean.
27. When your planting a garden, it’s important to be known about soils.
28. My mother always make me to be slow down if she think I am driving to fast.
29. One of our flights ended up with me having to sent to the hospital for getting stiches.
30. Please promise not telling anyone my secret.
31. I would appreciate having heard from you soon.
32. Maria has never complained about have a handicap.
33. Lillian deserves to be tell the truth about what happened last night.
34. Barbara always makes me laughing. She has a great sense of humor.
35. Ali no speak Spanish, and Juan not know Arabic. But they communicate well by
speak English when they be together.
36. I enjoyed to talk to her on the phone. I look forward to see her next week.
37. During a fire drill, everyone is required leaving the building.

9. Complete the sentences, using gerund

1. There are many difficulties involved in ………………………………………………….
2. You must be tired of ……………………………………………………………………..
3. The boy was severely reprimanded for …………………………………………………..
4. The public were warned the dangers of ………………………………………………….
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5. He doesn’t take any interest in …………………………………………………………..
6. You seem to be very fond of …………………………………………………………….
7. The soldier was court- martialed for ……………………………………………………..
8. Who is responsible for …………………………………………………………………...
9. You ought to think about ………………………………., instead of …………………...
10. This new scheme goes a long way towards …………………………………………….
11. I would never think of ………………………………………………………………….
12. They saw no reason for not …………………………………………………………….
13. My doctor advised me to give up ………………………………………………………
14. We had to put off ……………………………………………………………………….
15. That company specializes in ……………………………………………………………
16. I told him not to bother about …………………………………………………………..
17. The judge was accused of not ………………………………………………………...
18. The teacher decided against …………………………………………………………….
19. After ………………….., the customer left the shop without ………………………….
20. By ……………….., he ran the risk of …………………………………………………

10. For each of the following sentences, write another sentence as similar as possible
in meaning, using the verb in brackets together with a preposition and a gerund.
1. The customer said that the cashier had tried to overcharge her. (accuse)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Many people pass their driving test only at the second attempt. (succeed)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Concert-goers are asked not to smoke in the auditorium. (refrain)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. The solicitor talked his client out of taking legal action. (dissuade)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. If a customer gets poor service, you can’t say it’s wrong of him to make a fuss. (blame)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. The hijackers wouldn’t let the passengers leave the plane. (prevent)
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 ...…………………………………………………………………………………………
7. The student said he was sorry that he had missed the previous lesson. (apologize)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Visitors to the zoo are not allowed to feed the animals. (prohibit)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Despite my obvious lack of interest, the party bore said he had to tell me the rest of his
history. (insist)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. The police think that the owner of the store started the fire himself. (suspect)
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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CHAPTER THREE: VERBLESS CLAUSES bỏ to be, đứng trước câu là
adj

A clause-like construction in which a verb element is

implied but not present. Such clauses are usually
adverbial, and the omitted verb is a form of be.

Examples

 Generic drugs must be chosen when available

or an additional expense will be incurred.
(Verbless adverbial clause of time – modifying
“must be chosen”)
 Although not unfriendly toward strangers, this
từ nối adj -> verbless
dog will protect its family in times of danger.
(Verbless adverbial clause of concession –
modifying “will protect”)
 While in London, we’ll stay at a hotel.
(Verbless adverbial clause of time)
 Grateful for his help, they praised Tom. (Verbless adverbial clause of reason)
 The umpire declared the runner safe. (Verbless noun clause – direct object of
“declared”).

Verbless clauses can also, on occasion, be treated as reductions of non-finite clauses:
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor. - Rút gọn động từ to be -> câu rút dành cho adj
(= Being too nervous to reply…: adverbial clause of reason) Thấy tính từ đầu câu là verbless
As with participle clauses, the subject is often introduced by WITH:
With the tree now tall, we get more shade. (Adverbial clause of reason)
With his mouth open wide, the little boy rushed in the room. (Adverbial clause of
time)

 Verbless Relative clauses

We can use some adjectives and adjective phrases after nouns in a way that is similar to
reduced relative clauses.
There was one seat available on the flight. (= one seat which was available)
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 Mercury is a metal, silver in colour, often found in liquid form. (= which is silver
in colour)

Others include: NECESSARY, POSSIBLE, PRESENT, READY, RESPONSIBLE,

SUITABLE

PRACTICE
1. There are verbless clauses in the following sentences. Find and rewrite them in their
full form:

1. When in Rome, do as the Roman does.

……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. When pressed to take part in politics, he firmly declined.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. There were no stores of boots readily available.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. He threw himself from his horse and lay still as if shot.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Any foreigner, however innocent, was attacked.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
6. If left alone on a deserted island, what would you do first?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Our atmosphere, while beneficial for life in general, prevents us from seeing the
universe in any but a very restricted range of light.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Too disappointed about the results, Mike wouldn’t say a word.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
9. George, most distressed, told me what happened.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
10. If left unnoticed, your luggage will be towed away.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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11. Generic drugs must be chosen when available or an additional expense will be
incurred.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
12. Although not unfriendly toward strangers, this dog will protect its family in times of
danger.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
13. John believes the prisoner innocent.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
14. He considered the girl a good student.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
15. Whenever in trouble, Bill rang his girl-friend.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. He married her when a student at Harvard.
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 PRODUCTION

GROUP WORK

- Look at the pictures and write a simple story (200-300 words), using at
least 5 noun clauses, 4 relative clauses, 4 adverbial clauses in the forms
of Non-finite clauses and 2 clauses in the form of Verbless clause.
- Underline all NON-FINITE CLAUSES and VERBLESS CLAUSES in the story,
and then identify the type and function of each one.

……………………………………………………………………………………………
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 SUPLEMENTARY PART:

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

1. Introduction

SENTENCE

Main clause/ Subordinate

Principle clause clauses

Verbless
Finite Non-finite clauses
clauses clauses

Bare
Noun Adjectival Adverbial TO-infinitive V -ing V-ed
infinitive
clauses clauses clauses

 Major functions of principle clauses:

- to make a statement: They fell in love at once. We didn’t care about their
behaviour.
- to make a question: Will you be home for dinner? What should I tell him about
this?
- to make a request/ an order/ an invitation, etc.: Could you see me before the
meeting?
Would you like to go out for dinner?

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2. SENTENCE ANALYSIS

1. The music really wasn’t Holly’s type of thing, and it was so loud and noisy it was
difficult for her to tell if they were actually any good.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

The music…thing Principle clause
it was so loud and Principle clause Making statements and
noisy
it was difficult Finite adverbial Modifying the verb
clause of result ‘was’
for her to tell Non-finite noun Real subject of the
clause with subject verb ‘was’

if they…any good Finite noun clause Object of the verb If

‘tell’

2. Observing me, the young lady came over and asked me if I wished to buy anything.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

Observing me Non-finite adverbial Modifying the verb
clause of time ‘came over’ and
‘asked’
the young Principle clause Making a statement
lady…me

if I …anything Finite noun clause Object of the verb If

‘asked’
to buy anything Non-finite noun clause Object of the verb
‘wished’

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3. Their chief tie was the disapproval they shared of the men who spent their days and
nights in the smoking-room playing poker or bridge and drinking.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

Their Principle clause Making statements
…disapproval

they shared…men Finite adjectival clause Qualifying the noun

‘the disapproval’
who…smoking- Finite adjectival clause Qualifying the noun who
room ‘the men’
playing…bridge Non-finite adverbial Modifying ‘spent’
clause of time
drinking Non-finite adverbial Modifying ‘spent’ and
clause of time

PRACTICE
Analyze each of the following sentences according to the clauses they have and
their functions.
1. This establishment, which for years was protected by the council, was finally closed
down following a report by a veterinary inspector appointed under the terms of the
Licensing Act 1981.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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2. The final member of the Bach family, Dr. Otto Bach, died in 1893, taking with him the
musical genius that had entertained Germany for two centuries.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

3. Almost all of the people who ultimately commit suicide have made a previous
unsuccessful attempt to kill themselves or have threatened to do so.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

4. To appreciate what the hybrid corn breeder does, it is necessary to understand how corn
reproduces itself.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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5. Most foreign students realize that it is important for them to buy health insurance while
they are living in the United States, because hospital costs are very high.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

6. Some teachers argue that students who are used to using a calculator may forget how to
do mental calculations.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

7. If a baby is held up so that the sole of the foot touches a flat surface, well-coordinated
walking movements will be triggered.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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8. Generally, the use of one building material in preference to another indicates that it is
found in large quantities in the construction area and does an adequate job of protecting
the inhabitants from the weather.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

9. It is impossible to view Picasso’s Guernica without feeling bad about the fate of the
people portrayed.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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10. Foreign students who are making a decision about which school to attend may not
know exactly where the choices are located.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

11. It is very difficult to compute how much an item costs in dollars when one is
accustomed to calculating in another monetary system.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

12. It is believed that dodo birds forgot how to fly and eventually became extinct because
there were no natural enemies on the island of Mauritius, where they lived.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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13. Wounded by an assassin’s bullet while he was watching a play at the Ford Theatre,
Lincoln died a few hours after being shot.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

14. A century ago in America, all postal rates were determined not by weighing the mail
but by measuring the distance that the mail had to travel.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

15. That the earth and the moon formed simultaneously or formed at the same time is a
theory that accounts for the heat of the early atmosphere surrounding the earth.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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16. Even though a member had drunk too much the night before, the counselors at
Alcoholics Anonymous will try to convince him or her to sober up and stop drinking
again.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

17. John Philip Sousa, whom many people consider the greatest composer of marches,
wrote his music during the era known as the Gay 90s.

CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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18. When a patient’s blood pressure is much higher than it should be, a doctor usually
insists that he not smoke.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

19. One evening when I was looking at the photograph, as I always did before I went to
sleep, I noticed a shadow crossing the window of my bedroom.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

20. A City University professor reported that he discovers a vaccine that has been 80
percent effective in reducing the instances of tooth decay among small children.
CLAUSE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION CONNECTOR

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PHỤ LỤC

TIÊU CHÍ ĐÁNH GIÁ BÀI THUYẾT TRÌNH NHÓM

(10%- 10 điểm)
Tiêu chí đánh giá bài thuyết trình nhóm dựa trên những nội dung cốt lõi của chủ đề
thảo luận: kiến thức, kỹ năng, thái độ của từng sinh viên và của cả nhóm trong việc
hòan thành nội dung thuyết trình.

I/ ĐÁNH GIÁ NHÓM (5 điểm- 0,5 điểm mỗi tiêu chí) √/ X

Bố cục nội dung bài thuyết trình nhóm tốt, rõ ràng, phong phú, đa dạng và
dễ hiểu.
Các thành viên trong nhóm hợp tác tốt và ăn ý với nhau.
Phần giới thiệu và kết luận rõ ràng, mạch lạc.
Nội dung bài thuyết trình được sắp xếp 1 cách logic, mạch lạc.
Các dụng cụ hỗ trợ nghe, nhìn được sử dụng hiệu quả, hợp lý.
Bài thuyết trình nhóm được thực hiện theo đúng thời gian yêu cầu.
Có phần luyện tập liên quan và hữu ích.
Có sự tương tác với khán giả.
Thu hút được sự quan tâm và hứng thú của khán giả.
Kịch bản thuyết trình thú vị, sáng tạo.
Các nhận xét khác:

II/ ĐÁNH GIÁ CÁ NHÂN (5 điểm/ 0.5 điểm mỗi tiêu chí) √/ X
 Câu, chữ dễ hiểu, ngắn gọn
Ngôn ngữ  Không sử dụng tiếng lóng, từ địa phương
 Từ vựng và cấu trúc ngữ pháp đa dạng
 Sử dụng ngữ điệu tốt
 Tốc độ và âm lượng vừa phải
Giọng nói  Giọng nói thuyết phục, hấp dẫn
 Cách truyền đạt tự nhiên, tự tin, hấp dẫn
Cách trình bày  Sử dụng ngôn ngữ cơ thể, giao tiếp bằng mắt với
khán giả tốt
 Có khả năng thu hút sự chú ý của khán giả
 Không đọc từ giấy hay màn chiếu

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