JANESSA GILLE RAMISCAL

Chapter 7: Data Gathering and Collection Method

Introduction Observation:
Strengths
Observation (watching what people do) would
1. Controlled observations can be easily
seem to be an obvious method of carrying out
replicated by other researchers by using
research in psychology. However, there are
the same observation schedule. This
different types of observational methods and
means it is easy to test for reliability.
distinctions need to be made between:
2. The data obtained from structured
1. Controlled Observations
observations is easier and quicker to
2. Naturalistic Observations analyze as it is quantitative (i.e.
numerical) - making this a less
3. Participant Observations time-consuming method compared to
naturalistic observations.

3. Controlled observations are fairly

Controlled Observation quick to conduct which means that
many observations can take place within
Controlled observations (usually a structured
a short amount of time. This means a
observation) are likely to be carried out in a
large sample can be obtained resulting
psychology laboratory.
in the findings being representative and
The researcher decides where the observation having the ability to be generalized to a
will take place, at what time, with which large population.
participants, in what circumstances and uses a
standardized procedure. Participants are Limitations
randomly allocated to each independent variable
group. 1. Controlled observations can
lack validity due to the Hawthorne
Rather than writing a detailed description of all effect/demand characteristics. When
behavior observed, it is often easier to code participants know they are being
behavior according to a previously agreed scale watched they may act differently.
using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a
structured observation).

The researcher systematically classifies the

behavior they observe into distinct categories.
Naturalistic Observation
Coding might involve numbers or letters to
describe a characteristic, or use of a scale to Naturalistic observation is a research method
measure behavior intensity. commonly used by psychologists and other
social scientists.
The categories on the schedule are coded so
that the data collected can be easily counted This technique involves observing involves
and turned into statistics. studying the spontaneous behavior of
participants in natural surroundings. The
researcher simply records what they see in
whatever way they can.
In unstructured observations, the researcher 4. With observations, we do not
records all relevant behavior without system. have manipulations of variables (or
There may be too much to record and the control over extraneous variables) which
behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the means cause and effect relationships
most important so the approach is usually used cannot be established.
as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors
would be recorded.

Compared with controlled observations it is like

the difference between studying wild animals in Participant Observation
a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.
Participant observation is a variant of the above
With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead (natural observations) but here the researcher
used this method to research the way of life of joins in and becomes part of the group they are
different tribes living on islands in the South studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.
Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at
play by observing their behavior in a playgroup If it were research on animals we would now not
in Oxfordshire. only be studying them in their natural habitat but
be living alongside them as well!
Strengths This approach was used by Leon Festinger in a
famous study into a religious cult who believed
1 By being able to observe the flow of that the end of the world was about to occur. He
behavior in its own setting studies have joined the cult and studied how they reacted
greater ecological validity. when the prophecy did not come true.
2. Like case studies, naturalistic Participant observations can be either cover or
observation is often used to generate
overt. Covert is where the study is carried out
new ideas. Because it gives the
researcher the opportunity to study the 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and
total situation it often suggests avenues purpose are kept concealed from the group
of inquiry not thought of before. being studied.

The researcher takes a false identity and role,

Limitations
usually posing as a genuine member of the
1. These observations are often group.
conducted on a micro (small) scale and On the other hand, overt is where the researcher
may lack a representative sample reveals his or her true identity and purpose to
(biased in relation to age, gender, social the group and asks permission to observe.
class or ethnicity). This may result in the
findings lacking the ability to be
generalized to wider society. Limitations

2. Natural observations are 1. It can be difficult to get time / privacy

less reliable as other variables cannot for recording. For example, with covert
be controlled. This makes it difficult for observations researchers can’t take
another researcher to repeat the study notes openly as this would blow their
in exactly the same way. cover. This means they have to wait
until they are alone and rely on their
3. A further disadvantage is that the memory. This is a problem as they may
researcher needs to be trained to be forget details and are unlikely to
able to recognize aspects of a situation remember direct quotations.
that are psychologically significant and
worth further attention. 2. If the researcher becomes too
involved they may lose objectivity and
become bias. There is always the
 danger that we will “see” what we (events) she is interested in and records
expect (or want) to see. This is a all occurrences. All other types of
problem as they could selectively report behavior are ignored.
information instead of noting everything 2. Time sampling. The observer decides
they observe. Thus reducing in advance that observation will take
the validity of their data. place only during specified time periods
(e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per
day) and records the occurrence of the
specified behavior during that period
only.
Recording of Data 3. Instantaneous (target time) sampling.
The observer decides in advance the
With controlled / structured observation studies
an important decision the researcher has to pre-selected moments when
make is how to classify and record the data. observation will take place and records
Usually this will involve a method of sampling. what is happening at that instant.
The three main sampling methods are: Everything happening before or after is
ignored.
1. Event sampling. The observer decides
in advance what types of behavior

Focus Group Discussion

What is Focus Group Discussion
(FGD)?
A focus group discussion involves
gathering people from similar
backgrounds or experiences together
to discuss a specific topic of interest. It
is a form of qualitative research where
questions are asked about their
perceptions attitudes, beliefs, opinion
or ideas. In focus group discussion
participants are free to talk with other
group members; unlike other research
methods it encourages discussions
with other participants. It generally
involves group interviewing in which a
small group of usually 8 to 12 people.
It is led by a moderator (interviewer) in
a loosely structured discussion of
various topics of interest.
The group's composition and the group discussion ​ Free and open discussion among the respondents
should be carefully planned to create a results in generation of new ideas that can be very
non-intimidating environment, so that participants feel useful for
free to talk openly and give honest opinions. Since decision-making.
participants are actively encouraged to not only ​ A focus group is not static. The moderator can
express their own opinions, but also respond to other bring any changes in order to better facilitate
members and questions posed by the leader, focus the discussion during the group discussion. This
groups offer a depth, nuance, and variety to the dynamism allows better results in terms of
discussion that would not be available through information derived by a focus group.
surveys. ​ Expressions other than those in verbal form
such as gestures and stimulated activities can
Additionally, as FGDs are structured and directed, but
provide researcher with useful insights.
also expressive, they can yield a lot of information in a
relatively short time. Therefore, FGDs are a good way
The disadvantages of using focus group
to gather in-depth information about a community’s
discussion are as follows:
thoughts and opinions on a topic. The course of the
discussion is usually planned in advance and most ​ Though moderator can control the discussion, the
moderators rely on an outline, or guide, to ensure that extent to which he/she can control the discussion
all topics of interest are covered. depends on his/her experience. Inexperienced
moderator may face problems in controlling some
Key Features of FGDs participants who try to dominate the group.
● Involves organized discussion with a selected ​ Respondents may be reluctant to share
group of individuals to gain information about their some sensitive ideas and concerns publicly.
views and experiences of a topic
​ Due to small sample size and heterogeneity of
● Particularly suited for obtaining several
individuals,
perspectives about the same topic
the findings may not be adequate to make
● Helps in gaining insights into people’s shared
understanding of everyday life and the ways in projections or the composite picture of the
which individuals are influenced by others in a situation.
group situation ​ An FGD can be a very artificial set-up that influences
● The role of the moderator is very significant, as the
good levels of group leadership and interpersonal respondents to express and act unnaturally.
skill are required to moderate a group successfully.
The findings may be far from the actual.

Pros and Cons of Using FGDs

Skills Required to Conduct FGDs
The advantages of focus group discussion are as
Focus group discussion, like all research/study
follows: methods, it requires considerable skills, competencies
and expertise such as:

​ The researcher needs to be flexible and free of

biasness and prejudices.
​ A good understanding of the subject, problem, or
topic to be investigated. This includes both
theoretical knowledge and practical experience.
​ Proficiency in the language in which discussions
will be conducted. Focus group discussion cannot
be conducted through an interpreter or by third
person, no matter what types of skills he/she has.
● Facilitating and conducting a focus group ​ Have all your questions planned. Your job is to
interview requires considerable group process simply facilitate the focus group happening. It
skill. It is important to know how to manage the should almost run itself once you have it on track.
interview so that one or two people do not ​ Start with open questions.
dominate it, and so that those participants who ​ The first question should be general to get people
tend not to be highly verbal are able to share warmed up, say about participants’ views about
their views. the topic.
● Training or experience in conducting group ​ If you hear of something you haven’t heard of
discussion. This is very important because an before, ask the person to tell you more about it.
unskilled moderator can unknowingly inhibit the ​ If someone gives a general ‘motherhood’ answer,
free flow of discussion and draw unjustifiable ask them to give you an example.
conclusions and findings. ​ If someone shares an opinion, check with others
in the group whether they share the view.
Major steps involved in FGDs ​ At the beginning, explain you will be confidential,
that you invite them to be confidential and what
will happen to the information they give you. If
there will be a report, explain who it will go to and
how it will be used.
​ Go around the room and get each person to
answer your first question, to draw everyone in.
​ Keep praising and thanking people for their
contribution. Make them feel their contribution is
welcome and worthwhile.
​ Be sympathetic about the issues they raise, even
if you think some are using the focus group as a
bit of a whinge session.
​ Regularly ask questions of specific people, to
draw people in.
​ Feel free to change the order of the questions if
someone brings up something that relates to a
later question.
Dos and Don’ts Don’ts

Dos ​ Do not ask leading questions (ones that might

● Be the naive listener or the naive observer.
suggest you are looking for a particular answer).
● Wear clothes that fit in with what they wear. ​ Do not ask ‘yes or no’ questions, as this does not
● Act like the participants and you are equal. open up discussion, though if you inadvertently
● Look innocent, as if you didn’t know things, do, you can follow up with ‘why’?
even if you do. ​ Do not ask double-barrelled questions.
People cannot answer two questions at
once.
​ Do not tell people they are wrong. Do not correct
them.
​ Do not express any point of view.
​ Generally, try not to shut people down.
Welcome their contribution whatever it is.
​ Never say, “We’ll be talking about that later, not now.”
Secondary Data means the following four requirements must
be satisfied:-
Secondary data is the data that have been
already collected by and readily available from 1. Availability- It has to be seen that the
other sources. Such data are cheaper and kind of data you want is available or
more quickly obtainable than the primary not. If it is not available then you have
data and also may be available when primary to go for primary data.
data can not be obtained at all. 2. Relevance- It should be meeting the
requirements of the problem. For this
Advantages of Secondary data we have two criterion:-
a. Units of measurement should
1. It is economical. It saves efforts and be the same.
expenses. b. Concepts used must be same
2. It is time saving. and currency of data should
3. It helps to make primary data not be outdated.
collection more specific since with the 3. Accuracy- In order to find how
help of secondary data, we are able to accurate the data is, the following
make out what are the gaps and points must be considered: -
deficiencies and what additional a. Specification and methodology
information needs to be collected. used;
4. It helps to improve the understanding b. Margin of error should be
of the problem. examined;
5. It provides a basis for comparison for c. The dependability of the
the data that is collected by the source must be seen.
researcher. 4. Sufficiency- Adequate data should be
available.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
Robert W Joselyn has classified the above
discussion into eight steps. These eight steps
1. Secondary data is something that are sub classified into three categories. He
seldom fits in the framework of the has given a detailed procedure for evaluating
marketing research factors. Reasons secondary data.
for its non-fitting are:-
a. Unit of secondary data
1. Applicability of research objective.
collection-Suppose you want
2. Cost of acquisition.
information on disposable
3. Accuracy of data.
income, but the data is
available on gross income. The
information may not be same
as we require.
b. Class Boundaries may be
different when units are same.
c. Thus the data collected earlier
is of no use to you.
References:
2. Accuracy of secondary data is not
known.
3. Data may be outdated.
McLeod, S. A. (2015, June 06). Observation
Evaluation of Secondary Data methods. Simply Psychology.
[Link]/[Link]
Because of the above mentioned [Link]
disadvantages of secondary data, we will lead od-of-data-collection
to evaluation of secondary data. Evaluation
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[Link]
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