80

CHAPTER 6. NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

tegengekoppelde conguraties nauwkeurig te kunnen versterken worden operationele versterkers genoemd. Ze danken hun naam uit de tijd van de analoge computers, toen rekenbewerkingen (operaties) werden uitgevoerd met behulp van tegengekoppelde versterkers, waarvan de versterking nauwkeurig vast moest liggen. De signalen sg en so kunnen zowel stromen als spanningen voorstellen en we zullen nu onze beschouwen richten op het realiseren van de vier nauwkeurige overdrachten die hieruit voorvloeien.

6.3.5

The nullor

An important elementary active twoport that can be considered to be the ideal networktheoretical equivalent of the abovementioned high-gain amplier A is the nullor. For a nullor, it holds that all four chain parameters A, B, C and D equal zero; the transfer parameters , , and are thus innite. In case of nite output quantities uo and io , the input quantities of the nullor, as a consequence, equal zero. Figure 6.10 depicts the used nullor symbol. From Equation 4.22 4.25 it follows that a nullor is not suitable to be used as an accurate amplier. However, since the transfer parameters are innitely large, the nullor is the obvious twoport to be used as the active part in a negative-feedback conguration. In the next subsection, we nd that, by means of an amplier with nullor properties and a feedback network consisting of passive network elements, always one of the four transfers can be determined accurately. It will be shown that of each of the by means of negative feedback created new twoports, one of the transfer quantities is determined accurately by the passive network elements, while the other three remain (innitely) large and inaccurate.

Ii
+

Io
+

Ui
-

Uo Ii Io

Figure 6.10: Used nullor symbol and its signal orientations.

6.3.6

Negative-feedback amplier congurations

Passive two-port network elements that can be employed as feedback networks are the transformer, the gyrator, twoports that are constructed with one-port network elements, such as resistances, capacitances, inductances and diodes Transformers are often overlooked since as components they are relatively expensive, not easily integrated onto silicon and do not pass dc. However, transformers ideally do not introduce noise, consume no power and therefore do play a role in radio-frequency (RF) circuits as can be found in todays and future wireless communication systems. Their transfer function can be described by ui = 1 uo n ii = n io
1 n

(6.28) (6.29) uo io (6.30)

or

ui ii

0 n

6.3. LINEAR AMPLIFICATION

81

n being the ratio of the number of turns at the secondary side and the number of turns at the primary side, respectively. Employing the transformers accurate relation between input and output voltage or between input and output current, respectively, in a feedback conguration, it is thus possible to realize accurate voltage gain or current gain, respectively. Similarly, if gyrators would exist as components, they would allow the realization of accurate voltage-to-current (transadmittance) and current-to-voltage (transimpedance) transfers.

0 0 + 0 i1 1:n is Zs

iout

iout

Zl

Figure 6.11: Negative-feedback current amplier employing a transformer in its feedback path. Figure 6.11 depicts the basic conguration of a negative-feedback current amplier that employs a transformer in its feedback path. Its operation can be analyzed as follows. The output current iout ows from the positive output terminal of the nullor, via the secondary side of the transformer (at right), via the load Zl to the negative output terminal of the nullor. At the primary side of the transformer (at left), an n-times larger current is generated. Since the input voltage of a nullor equals zero, no current ows through the source impedance Zs . As also the input current of a nullor equals zero, apparently the source current is and the primary current add up to zero. It therefore holds: is = n iout (6.31) and thus: iout 1 = is n (6.32)

Note that indeed negative feedback is applied here, since the signals present at the positive output terminal and the negative input terminal of the nullor have identical signs. Note also that, since the input voltage of the current amplier remains zero, the input impedance of the current amplier equals zero, as should be for an ideal current amplier. The source impedance Zs thereby has no inuence on the transfer function. Finally, note that the output current is independent of the load Zl . The current amplier thus has the desired innite output impedance, as discussed in Section 4.4. Often, however, the feedback network is composed of a combination of one-port network elements, such as resistances, capacitances, inductances and diodes. The voltage-to-voltage converter or voltage amplier In the conguration depicted in Figure 6.12a, a fraction of the voltage ul that appears across the load Rl , by means of a parallel connection at the output and a series connection at the input, is

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CHAPTER 6. NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

fed back to the input. The relevant transfer quantity is t (index t denoting tegenkoppeling, i.e., feedback), dened to be: 1 uo,t t = = || (6.33) At ui,t io,t =0

Ii t
+

Io t
+ +

= 1 + Z2 /Z1
+ +
t Us

Rs Ui t
+

Z2 Z1
-

Uo t
-

U Us

Us
-

U
-

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.12: a. Negative-feedback voltage amplier employing an impedance network in its feedback path; b. voltage-controlled voltage source. Because of the nullor operation (ui = 0 and ii = 0), for io,t = 0 (assume Rl = ) it holds: ui,t = and therefore t = Z1 uo,t Z1 + Z2 1 Z2 =1+ At Z1 (6.34)

(6.35)

which is well dened by the passive feedback network. For the remaining chain parameters one readily nds: Bt = Ct = Dt = 0. The input and output impedances equal innity and zero, respectively. This means that the amplier does not load the source at all and acts like a voltagecontrolled voltage source, as depicted in Figure 6.12b. In the special case that Z1 = and/or Z2 = 0, the voltage gain ul /us becomes equal to 1 and one speaks of a voltage follower. The voltage-to-current converter or transadmittance amplier In the conguration depicted in Figure 6.13a, the current il that ows through the load Rl , by means of series connections at both output and input, is converted into a voltage by impedance Z and fed back to the input. The relevant transfer quantity is t , dened to be: t = io,t 1 = || Bt ui,t uo,t =0 (6.36)

Because of the nullor operation (ui = 0 and ii = 0), for uo,t = 0 (assume Rl = 0) it holds: ui,t = Z io,t and therefore t = 1 1 = Bt Z (6.37)

(6.38)

which is well dened by the passive feedback network. For the remaining chain parameters one readily nds: At = Ct = Dt = 0. The input and output impedances equal both innity. This means that the amplier does not load the source at all and acts like a voltage-controlled current source, as depicted in Figure 6.13b.

6.3. LINEAR AMPLIFICATION

83

Ii t
+

Io t
+

= -1/Z I

Rs Ui t
+

Uo t I1 Z
-

Us
-

Us
-

t Us

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.13: a. Negative-feedback transadmittance amplier employing an impedance in its feedback path; b. voltage-controlled current source. The current-to-voltage converter or transimpedance amplier In the conguration depicted in Figure 6.14a, the voltage ul across the load Rl , by means of parallel connections at both output and input, is converted into a current by impedance Z and fed back to the input. The relevant transfer quantity is t , dened to be: t = uo,t 1 = || Ct ii,t io,t =0 (6.39)

Z Ii t
+

Io t
+ +

= -Z

Is
+ +
t Is

Is

Rs

Ui t
-

Uo t
-

U
-

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.14: a. Negative-feedback transimpedance amplier employing an impedance in its feedback path; b. current-controlled voltage source. Because of the nullor operation (ui = 0 and ii = 0), for io,t = 0 (assume Rl = ) it holds: ii,t = 1/Z uo,t and therefore t = 1 = Z Ct (6.41) (6.40)

which is well dened by the passive feedback network. For the remaining chain parameters one readily nds: At = Bt = Dt = 0. The input and output impedances equal both zero. This means that the amplier does not load the source at all and acts like a current-controlled voltage source, as depicted in Figure 6.14b.

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CHAPTER 6. NEGATIVE-FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

The current-to-current converter or current amplier In the conguration depicted in Figure 6.15a, a fraction of the current il that ows through the load Rl , by means of a series connection at the output and a parallel connection at the input, is fed back to the input. The relevant transfer quantity is t , dened to be: t = io,t 1 = || Dt ii,t uo,t =0 (6.42)

Io t Ii t
+ +

I Is

= 1+Z2 /Z1 I

Uo t Is Rs Ui t
-

R
t Is

Z2 Z1
-

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.15: a. Negative-feedback current amplier employing an impedance network in its feedback path; b. current-controlled current source. Because of the nullor operation (ui = 0 and ii = 0), for uo,t = 0 (assume Rl = 0) it holds: ii,t = and therefore t = Z1 io,t Z1 + Z2 Z2 1 =1+ Dt Z1 (6.43)

(6.44)

which is well dened by the passive feedback network. For the remaining chain parameters one readily nds: At = Bt = Ct = 0. The input and output impedances equal zero and innity, respectively. This means that the amplier does not load the source at all and acts like a currentcontrolled current source, as depicted in Figure 6.15b. In the special case that Z1 = and/or Z2 = 0, the current gain il /is becomes equal to 1 and one speaks of a current follower.

6.4

Learning objectives

After studying this chapter, the student: 1. is able to distinguish between linear and nonlinear with respect to components, networks and transfer functions 2. understands how a harmonic signal that passes through a nonlinear transfer function yields higher harmonics 3. is able to calculate the distortion of a signal, comprising rst and higher harmonics 4. knows and understands the concept of additive and multiplicative compensation and negative feedback to linearize ampliers 5. knows, understands and is able to apply the concept of negative feedback in general (Blacks model)