UNIT 7

PERFORM INDUSTRY
CALCULATIONS

Learning Objectives....................................................165
Introduction.................................................................166
Perform Four Fundamental Operations..................166
Perform Conversion of Units...................................174
Compute Percentage And Ratio...............................180
Unit Summary............................................................187
Points Of Discussion..................................................187
Multiple Choice Questions.......................................187
References....................................................................189

LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you are expected to:
• Perform four fundamental operations
• Perform conversion of units
• Perform calculations on algebraic expressions
• Compute percentage and ratio
Shielded Metal Arc Welding: Beginner

INTRODUCTION
Good welders use basic and advanced math to be able to carry out several welding operations
every day. Knowing whole numbers, fractions, converting to decimals, how to calculate
volume and area, using geometry to determine angles and using tangents, sine and cosine
all make a welder a critical member of any construction team or company.
A variety of basic welding applications, whether you’re working in construction or
fabrication, require a Math test (Medium)rudimentary understanding of measurements
to accurately size, cut and fit metal and other materials. And measurements are all based
on computational fractions, which may also, in certain situations, need to be converted to
decimals.
Reading and understanding blueprints and schematics, which you will probably be
called upon to do quite frequently, working in both construction and fabrication, requires
a general knowledge of fractions and decimals in order to understand how measurements
breakdown and apply to the structures or item you’re building.

PERFORM FOUR FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Fundamental operation in simplifying mathematical expressions consisting of the same type
of operation, we perform one operation at a time generally starting from the left towards
the right. If an expression has more than one fundamental operation, you cannot perform
operations in the order they appear in the given question. We need follow the rules to
perform the operations. Some operations have to be performed before the others. That is,
each operation has its own precedence.
Generally, the order in which we perform operations sequentially from left to right is:
division, multiplication, addition, subtraction.
This order is expressed in short as ‘DMAS’ where ‘D’ stands for division, ‘M’ stands for
multiplication, ‘A’ stands for addition and, ‘S’ for subtraction.
We first need to perform operation of the divisions and multiplications starting from the
left towards the right and then perform operation of the additions and subtractions from
the left to right.
The fundamental operations in mathematics are addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. There are corresponding symbols for each. The plus sign (+) is for addition. The
minus sign (-) is for subtraction. The symbols “x”, “*” and “•” signify multiplication. The
obelus (÷) and forward slash (/) are used for division.
Addition combines two or more numbers to get their sum or total, while subtraction finds
the difference between two quantities. Multiplication is repeated addition; one of the numbers
in a multiplication equation indicates how many times the other number needs to be added
to itself. Division is the inverse of multiplication.

Simple Calculations Involving Whole Numbers

The four basic operations on whole numbers are addition; subtraction; multiplication and
division. We will learn about the basic operations in more detailed explanations along with
the examples.
1. Solve using rearrangement:
(a) 784 + 127 + 216
Solution:

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784 + 127 + 216

= (784 + 216) + 127
= 1000 + 127
= 1127
(b) 25 × 8 × 125 × 4
Solution:
25 × 8 × 125 × 4
= (125 × 8) × (25 × 4)
= 1000 × 100
= 100000

2. Find the value using distributive property.

(a) 2651 × 62 + 2651 × 38
Solution:
2651 × 62 + 2651 × 38
Property: a × b + a × c = a × (b + c)
= 2651 × (62 + 38)
= 2651 × 100
= 265100
(b) 347 × 163 - 347 × 63
Solution:
347 × 163 - 347 × 63
Property: a × b - a × c = a × (b - c)
= 347 × (163 - 63)
= 347 × 100
= 34700
(c) 128 × 99 + 128
Solution:
128 × 99 + 128
Property: a × b - a × c = a × (b + c)
= 128 × 99 + 128
= 128 × (99 + 1)
= 12800

3. Find the product using distributive property:

(a) 237 × 103
Solution:
237 × 103
237 × (100 + 3)
Property: a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
Therefore, 237 × (100 + 3)

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= 237 × 100 + 237 × 3

= 23700 + 711
= 24411
(b) 510 × 99
Solution:
510 × 99
510 × (100 - 1)
Property: a × (b - c) = a × b - a × c
Therefore, 510 × (100 - 1)
= 510 × 100 - 510 × 1
= 51000 - 510
= 50490

4. Verify the following:

(a) 537 + 265 = 265 + 537

Solution:

537 + 265 =265 + 537

L.H.S. = 537 + 265 = 802

R.H.S. = 265 + 537 = 802

Property: a + b =b + a

Therefore, L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Hence, verified.

(b) 25 × (36 × 50) = (25 × 36) × 50

Solution:

25 × (36 × 50) = (25 × 36) × 50

L.H.S.= 25 × (36 × 50) = 25 × 1800 = 45000

R.H.S. = (25 × 36) × 50 = 900 × 50 = 45000

Property: a × (a × c) = (a × b) × c

Therefore, L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Hence, verified.

5. Find the least number that must be subtracted from 1000 so that 45 divides the difference
exactly.

Solution:

Divide 1000 by 45.

Now 1000 - 10 = 990

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Therefore, 10 should be subtracted from 1000 so that difference 990

is divisible by 45.

6. Find the least number that should be added to 1000 so that 65

divides the sum exactly.

Solution:

Divide 1000 by 65.

22
65 1000
−65
350
−325
25

Now finding the difference between the divisor and remainder, we

get

65 - 25 = 40

Therefore, 40 must be added to 1000 so that the sum 1040 is exactly

divisible by 65.

7. Find the number which when divided by 15 gives 7 as the

quotient and 3 as the remainder.

Solution:

Dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder

= 15 × 7 + 3

= 105 + 3 = 108

Therefore, the required number is 108

Mixed Numbers
A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a
fraction. To put this another way: to turn a mixed number into
a fraction, multiply the whole number by the denominator (the KEY WORD
Numerator is the part of
bottom part), and add the result to the numerator (the top part). a fraction that is above
21/2 = ? the line and signifies the
number to be divided by the
Multiply the whole number by the denominator. denominator.

The whole number is 2.

The denominator is 2.
2 x 2 = 4.
Add the result to the numerator:
The numerator is 1.
4 + 1 = 5
The numerator is 5. The denominator remains 2.

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21/2 = 5/2
Another Example
Let’s try another example:
52/3 = ?
Multiply the whole number by the denominator.
The whole number is 5.
The denominator is 3.
5 x 3 = 15.
Add the result to the numerator:
The numerator is 2.
15 + 2 = 17
The numerator is 17. The denominator remains 3.
52/3 = 17/3

Proper and Improper Fractions

A fraction in which the numerator is smaller than the denominator, like 1/3 or 2/5 is called a
proper fraction. A fraction in which the numerator is larger than or equal to the denominator,
like 5/2, 17/3, or 6/6 is called an improper fraction.(To put it another way, a fraction with a
value less than 1 is a proper fraction. A fraction with a value greater than or equal to 1 is
an improper fraction.)
As we have shown above, mixed numbers can be written as improper fractions. Similarly,
improper fractions can be written as mixed numbers.
Writing Improper Fractions as Mixed Numbers
To write an improper fraction as a mixed number, divide the numerator (top part) by
the denominator (bottom part). The quotient is the whole number, and the remainder is
the numerator.
How would you express 17/4 as a mixed number?
Divide the numerator by the denominator:
17 ÷ 4 = 4, with a remainder of 1
The quotient, 4, is the whole number. The remainder, 1, is the numerator. The denominator
remains 4.
17
/4 = 41/4
Two More Examples
Let’s try another couple of examples:
14
/9 = ?

POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Mixed numbers are numbers that entail both an integer and a fraction. You are
mixing these two types of numbers, hence the name mixed numbers!
• Mixed numbers are helpful when we are counting whole things and parts of
things together.

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Divide the numerator by the denominator:

14 ÷ 9 = 1, with a remainder of 5
The quotient, 1, is the whole number. The remainder, 5, is the
numerator. The denominator remains 9.
14
/9 = 15/9
If there is no remainder, just take the quotient as the whole
number:
20
/5 = ?
Divide the numerator by the denominator:
20 ÷ 5 = 4
The quotient, 4, is the whole number. There is no remainder.
20
/5 = 4
KEY WORD
Fraction and Decimal Remainder is the
amount “left over”
Fractions and decimals allow you to work in either construction after performing
some computation. In
or fabrication so you can determine sizes. Being able to convert
arithmetic, the remainder
fractions to decimals means you’ll need to know computational is the integer “left over”
fractions. Fractions and decimals have several applications in after dividing one integer
welding: by another to produce
an integer quotient. In
• Reading blueprints algebra, the remainder
• Working with penetration depths is the polynomial “left
over” after dividing one
• Welding seams together polynomial by another.
• Measuring project sizes
• Determining the correct amount of materials to use
• Cutting pipe
Learning a little mathematics will keep you from wasting
gas and welding rods and ruining a lot of projects, and it is
absolutely necessary if you want to become a master welder. You
will only need to understand some math basics to become a very
good welder, these include fractions, measuring, understanding
simple formulas and knowing your way around the mathematics
of geometrical shapes.
Fractions show up in welding all the time. A good welder can
tell you how many times 3/4 goes into four and a half without
having to look for a calculator--most calculators do not handle
fractions anyway. Welding seams and penetration depths are
almost always described in terms of fractions. A little practice
with any good mathematics book will make you an expert at
adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions. More and
more, decimals (a special kind of fractions) are being used and
the ability to convert between decimals and ordinary fractions is
needed. Problems like how to write 3/16 of an inch in decimals
come up frequently. Start learning with a calculator then try to
do more and more in your head--it will save a lot of time.
Expert welders say “measure twice and weld once”, but even

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two measurements are insufficient if you are doing it incorrectly.

Making accurate measurements will save you from making a lot of
mistakes. In some jobs the measurements will be in metric, so it is
important to be familiar with millimeters and centimeters as well as
with inches. It would be unfortunate to miss out on a lucrative job
with a foreign employer because you can’t understand the metric
system. Remember that the rest of the world uses metric and that
the workplace is becoming more and more international.

There are some formulas used in welding, so you should

feel comfortable with formulas and know how to use them.
There will be formulas involving shapes and formulas involving
gasses. Understanding formulas not only means knowing how to
use the formulas in calculations, it means looking at a formula
and knowing what it means. For example, one of the gas laws
says that the pressure times the volume equals the temperature
times a constant. A master welder will look at this formula
and instantly tell you what happens to the temperature if the
KEY WORD pressure goes down and the volume stays the same.
Geometry is a branch A knowledge about the mathematics of basic geometrical
of mathematics
shapes is essential for good welders. For one thing, this will
concerned with
questions of shape, allow you to accurately estimate how much supplies you will
size, relative position need for a job. If you are welding around 1,000 ten inch disks
of figures, and the you will need to know how to calculate the 1,000 circumferences
properties of space. before you know how much gas and how many rods you will
need. There is a similar problem with welding metal boxes--if
you do not know the geometry you will have no idea how much
supplies are needed for the job.

Using Four Fundamental Operations

These operations are commonly called arithmetic operations.
Arithmetic is the oldest and most elementary branch of
mathematics. Keep in mind that, even though the operations
and the examples shown here are pretty simple, they provide the
basis for even the most complex operations used in mathematics.
Addition. Addition is a mathematical operation that explains
the total amount of objects when they are put together in a
collection.
Addition can also be used to perform operations with negative
numbers, fractions, decimal numbers, functions etc. There are
several properties that are typical for addition:
1. Commutativity
2. Associativity
3. Identity element
Subtraction. Subtraction is the arithmetic operation that is the
opposite of addition. Subtraction is used when you want to
know how many objects are left in the group after you take
away a certain amount of objects from that group.

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As you can see, subtraction is determined by the “minus (-) symbol”. Subtraction can also be
used to perform operations with negative numbers, fractions, decimal numbers, functions, etc.
Multiplication. Multiplication of two numbers is equivalent to the addition of a number to
itself as many times as the value of the other one number is. Think of it like this: you have
5 groups of apples and each group has 3 apples. One of the ways you can find out how
many apples you have is this one:
3 apples + 3 apples + 3 apples + 3 apples + 3 apples = 15 apples in total
You can see that it is way too much work (especially if you have larger numbers), so you
can use multiplication to solve this problem:
5 group of apples x 3 apples in every group = 15 apples in total
This could be even easier by using the table of multiplication:
Multiplication is signified with multiplication sign “x”, and it is often read as “times”
or “multiplied by”. So if you had an expression like “3 x 4”, you could read it as “3 times
4” or “3 multiplied by 4”. In the other words, the expression of multiplication signifies the
number of times one number is multiplied by another number.
3∗4=12 -> The number 3 is multiplied in this equation 4 times, and when you multiply
3 by 4 you get the number 12 as a result.
Division. Division is the fourth basic math operation. Basically, you can say that dividing
means splitting objects into equal parts or groups. The division is the opposite of multiplication:
3∗4=12
4∗3=12
12/4=3
12/3=4
In mathematics when you perform computational actions you must have in mind that there
is a sequence that need to be respected in order to do calculation properly.
Addition and subtraction are first degree mathematical operations, and multiplication and
division are second degree mathematical operations. Which means:
• If same degree operations, we resolve them by their order (from left to right):
For example,
18–2+4=16+4=20 -> this only applies if there are no brackets in the equation. If there are
brackets, we firstly resolve numbers in the brackets.
18–(2+4)=18–6=12 -> notice the difference in results, even with same numbers
• If there are different degree operations, we resolve it by the degree order –
multiplication and division first and addition and subtraction after.
For example:
2+3∗4=2+12=14
Numbers in brackets are need to be resolve firstly in any case!

PROGRESS CHECK
1. Define simple calculations involving whole numbers.
2. What do you understand by the fraction and decimal?

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PERFORM CONVERSION OF
UNITS
With all of the different measuring systems in the world,
converting units can come in handy. You’ll need to understand
fractions, unless you are working with the metric system. No
KEY WORD matter which system you use, always carefully write your units
Metric system is at every step to keep track of where you are.
an internationally
recognized decimalized
system of measurement.

Compare your two units. The two units must measure the
same thing. For example, in the problem «convert 2 inches into
centimeters,” both inches and centimeters measure length. If your
units measure two different things (like length and weight), you
can’t convert between them.
• People often get confused about length, area, and volume,
which are three different things. Remember that “square”
or “2” means area, and “cubic” or “3” means volume.
• You can also write this example as 2 in. = ? cm.

Look up the conversion. Before you can do the math, you

need to know how much larger one unit is than the other. If
the conversion you find has many decimal places, round to the
nearest significant digit. If you don›t know what a significant
digit is, round to the second or third digit.
• For example, if you need to convert 2 inches to
centimeters, you need to know that 1 inch = 2.54
centimeters.

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Write the conversion as a fraction. Write this conversion as a fraction, including units. Put
the unit you start with on bottom (the denominator), and the unit you’re converting to on
top (the numerator).[1]
• For example, write 2.54 cm/1 in.. You can read this as “2.54 centimeters per inch”.

Write a multiplication problem with your original number and the fraction. Multiplying these
two numbers together will give you your answer. To start this, write out the multiplication
problem, with units after each value.
• 2 in. x 2.54 cm/1 in. = ?

Solve the multiplication problem. It›s important to keep track of your units while you do
this. Every unit in the equation should still be there during each step.
• 2 in. x 2.54 cm/1 in.
• = (2 in x 2.54 cm)/1 in.
• = (5.08 in. x cm.)/ in.

Cancel units that appear on top and bottom. If a unit is on the top and bottom of the
fraction, cross it out. Whatever you›re left with should be your answer.
• (5.08 in. x cm.)/ in.

• = 5.08 cm.

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Correct mistakes. If your units don›t cancel, start over and try again. You might have put
the wrong half of the fraction on top.
• For example, if you multiplied 2 inch. x (1 in. / 2.54 cm), your answer will have
units of “in. x in. / cm,” which doesn’t make any sense. You realize the inches will
cancel if you flip the fraction, so you try again with 2 inch x (2.54 cm / 1 in.).

Unit’s Conversion Using Formulae

A basic understanding of formulas is important for solving geometric equations necessary to
replicate certain shapes, in addition to calculating volume and reading formulas related to
welding gases –- a seasoned welder can easily determine the effect of temperature changes
relative to changes in pressure based on a formula.
Learning to write out long form computations and equations is an invaluable skill that
will not only help you when your calculator is out of reach, but also provides a better
illustration of a particular scenario or problem you’re trying to work through. When your
seemingly annoying high school math demanded you “show your work,” it’s not because
they wanted to be annoying (well maybe not…?), it’s because they wanted you to have the
ability to work through a particular problem so you could apply the same process in the
future.

Fractions
A fraction represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts.
When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size
there are, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters. A common, vulgar, or simple
fraction (examples: 1/2 and 17/3) consists of an integer numerator displayed above a line
(or before a slash), and a non-zero integer denominator, displayed below (or after) that line.
Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including
compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
• A calculator is undoubtedly an important tool for welders, but what if you’re
out in the field doing repairs or on a construction site and you don’t have a
calculator handy?

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Mixed numbers
A mixed number is a whole number plus a fraction. Here are
a few mixed numbers:

1 1/2 1 1/3 2 1/2 2 2/5 1 4/5

You can convert a mixed number to an improper fraction by

finding the number of unit fractions in the whole number and
then adding the fractional part of the whole number. This sounds
hard, but it really isn’t. For example, in the first example the
1 changes to 2/2 because there are 2 halves in a whole. In the
fourth example, the 2 becomes 10/5 because there are 5 fifths
in a whole. Get it? Once you have done this, then you just add
the fraction to it. So, each of our examples above becomes:

3/2 4/3 5/2 12/5 9/5

Now here’s a problem for you:
Convert 3 1/3 to an improper fraction.

Decimal
A decimal is a way of writing a number that is not whole.
Decimal numbers are ‘in between’ numbers. For example, 10.4
is in between the numbers 10 and 11. It is more than 10, but
less than 11.
Take care when reading the values of decimal numbers.
4.2 means 4 and 2 tenths.
4.20 means 4 and 2 tenths and 0 one-hundredths. The last zero
does not need to be there.
4.02 means 4 and 0 tenths and 2 one-hundredths.

English measurements to Metric

Measurements KEY WORD
International System of
The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system Units (SI) is the modern
of measurement created in France in 1799. The International form of the metric
System of Units (SI), the official system of measurement in system, and is the most
almost every country in the world, is based upon the metric widely used system of
measurement.
system.
In the metric system, each basic type of measurement (length,
weight, capacity) has one basic unit of measure (meter, gram, and
liter). Conversions are quickly made by multiplying or dividing
by factors of 10. It is as simple as moving the decimal point to
the right (for smaller prefixes) or to the left (for larger prefixes).
To remember the proper decimal movement, arrange the
prefixes from largest to smallest:

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Example. Convert 10.25 kilometers to meters. Notice in the listing above that meter is three
places to the right of the prefix kilo. This tells us to move the decimal point three places to
the right. The answer is 10,250 meters.
Example. Convert 650 mL to daL. [mL is milliliters and daL is decaliters]. Notice in the
listing above that the prefix deca is four places to the left of the prefix milli. This tells us
to move the decimal point four places to the left. The answer is 0.0650 daL. (Note: dL is
deciliters, daL is decaliters.)
Example. Convert 750 grams to milligrams. Notice in the listing above that the prefix
milli is three places to the right of gram. This tells us to move the decimal point three places
to the right. The answer is 750,000 milligrams.

English System of measurement

While the metric system was lawfully accepted for use in the United States in 1866, the US
has not adopted the metric system as its “official” system of measurement. The US English
System of measurement grew out of the manner in which people secured measurements
using body parts and familiar objects. For example, shorter ground distances were measured
with the human foot and longer distances were measured by paces, with one mile being
1,000 paces. Capacities were measured with household items such as cups, pails (formerly
called gallons) and baskets.
Obviously this system allowed for discrepancies between measurements obtained by
different individuals. A standard was eventually set to ensure that all measurements represented
the same amount for everyone.

Length: Weight: Capacity:

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz) 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 3 teasponns (tsp)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet 1 ton = 2000 pounds 1 cup (c) = 16 tablespoons

1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet 1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (oz)

1 mile = 1760 yards 1 pint (pt) = 2 cups

1 quart (qt) = 2 pints

1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts

Conversion Ratio (or Unit Factor): While the Metric System simply moves the decimal
point to convert between its measurements› prefixes, the English System requires a conversion
ratio (or unit factor)to move between measurements. In the Metric System, the prefix itself
gives the needed conversion ratio.
A conversion ratio (or unit factor) is a ratio equal to one. This ratio carries the names
of the units to be used in the conversion. It can be used for conversions within the English
and Metric Systems, as well as for conversions between the systems. The conversion ratio is
based upon the concept of equivalent values. In the example below, one foot is substituted
for its equivalent measure of 12 inches.

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Example. Convert 84 inches to feet. A proportion can be set

up using the appropriate conversion ratio. In a proportion the
product of the means equals the product of the extremes. Use
this “cross multiply” concept to find the answer.

? feet 1 feet
=
84 inches 12 inches
Conversion Ratio

ANSWER: 7 feet

Perform Calculations on Algebraic

Expressions
Algebraic expressions include at least one variable and at least
one operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division).
For example, 2(x + 8y) is an algebraic expression. DID YOU KNOW?
Algebraic expression is an expression built up from integer
constants, variables, and the algebraic operations (addition, The ideas surrounding
subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation by an algebraic functions
exponent that is a rational number). For example, 3x2 − 2xy + c go back at least as
is an algebraic expression. far as René Descartes.
The first discussion
Now you need to know how to perform calculations on of algebraic functions
algebraic expressions, including: appears to have been
• Simple calculations are performed on algebraic in Edward Waring’s
expressions using the four fundamental operations 1794 An Essay on the
• Simple transposition of formulae are carried out to isolate Principles of Human
the variable required, involving the four fundamental Knowledge.
operations.
• Where appropriate, formulae are constructed to enable
problems to be solved
• Equations involving one unknown solved correctly
A rational expression is an expression that may be rewritten
to a rational fraction by using the properties of the arithmetic
operations (commutative properties and associative properties
of addition and multiplication, distributive property and rules
for the operations on the fractions). In other words, a rational
expression is an expression which may be constructed from the
variables and the constants by using only the four operations
of arithmetic.

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COMPUTE PERCENTAGE AND RATIO

The word percentage comes from the word percent. If you split the word percent into its
root words, you see “per” and “cent.” Cent is an old European word with French, Latin,
and Italian origins meaning “hundred”. So, percent is translated directly to “per hundred.”
If you have 87 percent, you literally have 87 per 100. If it snowed 13 times in the last 100
days, it snowed 13 percent of the time.
The numbers that you will be converting into percentages can be given to you in 2
different formats, decimal and fraction. Decimal format is easier to calculate into a percentage.
Converting a decimal to a percentage is as simple as multiplying it by 100. To convert .87
to a percent, simply multiple .87 by 100.
.87 × 100=87
Thus, resulting in 87 percent.
The ratio is the relationship of two numbers. For example you have 2 flashlights and 5
batteries. To compare the ratio between the flashlights and the batteries we divide the set
of flashlights with the set of batteries.
The ratio is 2 to 5 or 2:5 or 2/5. All these describe the ratio in different forms of fractions.
The ratio can consequently be expressed as fractions or as a decimal. 2:5 in decimals is 0.4.
A rate is a little bit different than the ratio, it is a special ratio. It is a comparison of
measurements that have different units, like cents and grams. A unit rate is a rate with a
denominator of 1.
A ratio is a numerical comparison of 2 or more quantities which indicates their relative
sizes. It can be considered as a way of comparing numbers by division. In a ratio of two
numbers, the first value is termed the incident and the second number is the consequent.
Ratios in Daily Life
• 60 miles per 1 hour (the “per” word instantly indicates a ratio)
• Cost per text message
• 1 to 28,000,000 chance of winning the lottery
• 3 teachers per 76 students
How to Write a Ratio
It’s fine to write a ratio using a colon, as a this-to-that comparison, or as a fraction. In
math, it’s usually preferable to simplify the comparison to the smallest whole numbers. So,
instead of comparing 12 to 16, you can divide each number by 4 to get a ratio of 3 to 4.
• 3:4
• 3 to 4
• 3/4
• 0.75 (a decimal is also permissible, although it’s less commonly used)
If you are asked to provide an answer “as a ratio”, the colon format or fraction is usually
preferred over the verbal comparison.
The big advantage of using the colon for ratios is apparent when you compare more
than two values. For example, if you are preparing a mixture that calls for 1 part oil, 1 part
vinegar, and 10 parts water, you could express the ratio of oil to vinegar to water as [Link].
It’s also useful to express the dimensions of an object. For example, the ratio of dimensions
of a block of wood might be [Link] (a two-by-four that is 10 feet long). Note that the numbers
are not simplified in this context.

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Calculate Ratios into Percentages

Before you start converting ratios into percentages, consider the
information that’s encoded in a ratio and how it’s expressed. For
example, imagine that you’re in a math class with 30 students.
Of those students, 22 passed the last math test and 8 students
did not. There are two ways of writing the ratio:
22:8 or 22/8
In either case, you have to label what each number represents.
Obviously there’s a big difference between a class where 22
students passed and a class where only 8 students passed, so
getting the order of the terms correct matters – a lot! You read
a ratio from left to right, in the first case, or top to bottom in
the second case. So you’d describe either of the ratios just given
as the ratio of students who did pass to the students who didn’t
pass.
Note that the total number of students who took the test
is in the ratio, too. Just add the number of students who did
pass to the number of students who didn’t pass to get back to
your total of 30 students.

Converting Ratios into Percentages

When you want to turn a ratio into a percentage, you must choose
just one part to compare against the whole. For example, using
the example ratio just given, you could find out the percentage
of students who passed the test.

Write a New Fraction

Because percentages compare one part against the whole, you
can write the percentage of students who passed as a fraction
with the number of students who passed in the numerator, and
the number of students in the entire class as the denominator.
KEY WORD
In other words, you have: Denominator, that term
of a fraction, usually
22 (students who passed) / 30 (students in the entire class) written under the
Note that you could also write this as 22 : 30 – it’s really line, that indicates the
number of equal parts
just another ratio in disguise. The key point that makes it a into which the unit is
percentage, too, is that you’re comparing one part against the divided; divisor
whole, instead of comparing one part against another part of
the same whole.

Work the Division

Work the division represented by the fraction you just wrote.
To continue the example:
22 ÷ 30 = 0.7333 (This is a repeating decimal; your teacher will
tell you which decimal point to round to.)
Convert the Decimal to a Percentage
Multiply the result from Step 2 by 100 to convert it into a

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percentage. Continuing the example, you have:

0.7333 × 100 = 73.33 percent
So of the entire class, 73.33 percent passed the last test.

Formula for Computing Percentages

Knowing how to calculate percentages will help you not only score well on a math test but
in the real world as well. They are used for calculating tips in restaurants, finding out the
nutritional content of your food, or even determining statistics of your favorite sports team.
Regardless of how you plan to use the knowledge, calculating percentages is fundamental
and quite easy overall.
Visualize what a percentage represents. A percentage is an expression of part of the
whole. Nothing is represented by 0%, and the whole amount is 100%. Everything else is
somewhere in between!
• For example, say you have 10 apples. If you eat 2 apples, then you have eaten 2 out
of the whole 10 apples (2 / 10 × 100% = 20% eaten). If 10 apples is 100% and you
ate 20%, then 100% - 20% = 80% of the apples remain.
• The term “percent” in English comes from the Latin per centum, meaning “through
100” or “for 100”.

Determine the value of the whole. In some cases, you will be given the value for part
of the whole and the whole. Other times, you might get two parts that make up the whole.
It is important to distinguish what the percentage is “of.” For instance, let›s say we have a
jar containing 1199 red marbles and 485 blue marbles, making it 1684 marbles in total. In
this case, 1684 makes up a whole jar of marbles, i.e. 100%.

Find the value that you want to turn into a percentage. Let›s say we want to find out
the percentage of the jar that is taken up by the blue marbles. Then the percentage of the
whole we are looking for is 485 (the number of blue marbles) of 1684 (the whole amount).

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Put the two values into a fraction. The part goes on top of the fraction (numerator), and
the whole goes on the bottom (denominator). Therefore the fraction in this case is 485/1684
(part/whole).

Convert the fraction into a decimal. Percentages are best calculated from the decimal
form. To turn 485/1684 into a decimal, divide 485 by 1684 using a calculator or pencil and
paper. This comes to 0.288.

Convert the decimal into a percent. Multiply the result obtained in the step above by
100% (per 100 = per cent). For this example, 0.288 multiplied by 100% equals 28.8%.

PROGRESS CHECK
1. How to calculate ratios into percentages?
2. Consider and find the value that you want to turn into a percentage.

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Computation of Ratio and Proportion

A ratio is a comparison between a pair of numbers, and while you can usually obtain it
by direct measurement, you might have to do some calculations to make it useful. These
calculations are called scaling, and they can be important when you’re doing something like
adapting a recipe for different numbers of people. When comparing numbers in a ratio, it’s
important to know what they represent. The numbers may represent two parts of a whole,
or one of the numbers may represent a part of a whole while the other number represents
the whole itself.

Expressing a Ratio
Mathematicians and scientists use one of three conventions to express a ratio. Suppose you
have two numbers A and B. You can express the ratio between them as:
• A:B
• A to B
• A/B
When reading the ratio aloud, you always say “A to B.” The term for A is the antecedent,
and the term for B is the consequent.
As an example, consider a grade school class which has 32 students, 17 of whom are
girls and 15 of which are boys. The ratio of girls to boys can be written as 17:15, 17 to 15
or 17/15, while the ratio of boys to girls is 15:17, 15 to 17 or 15/17. The classroom has 32
students, so the ratio of girls to the total number of students is 17:32, and the ratio of boys
to the total number of students is 15:32.
When comparing part of a whole to the whole, you can convert the ratio to a percentage
by expressing it in fractional form, dividing the antecedent by the consequent and multiplying
by 100. In our example, we find that the class is 17/32 x 100 = 53% female and 15/32 x 100
= 47% male. In terms of percentages, the ratio of girls to boys is 53:47, and the ratio of boys
to girls is 47:53.

Scaling a Ratio
You scale a ratio by multiplying both the antecedent and consequent by the same number.
In the above example, we scaled the ratio by multiplying by 100 to give us percentages,
which are often more useful than raw numbers. Cooks often need to scale ratios to adapt
recipes for different numbers of people.
For example, a recipe intended to feed 4 people calls for 2 cups of soup mix to be added
to 6 cups of water. The ratio of soup mix to water is therefore 2:6. If a cook wants to make
this soup for 12 people, he or she needs to multiply each term by 3, because 12 divided by
4 = 3. The ratio then becomes 6:18. The cook needs to add 6 cups of soup mix to 12 cups
of water.

Simplifying a Ratio
When a ratio compares two large numbers, it’s often useful to simplify it by dividing the
antecedent and consequent by a common factor. For example, you can simplify the ratio
128:512 by dividing each term by 128. This produces the more convenient ratio 1:4.
To illustrate, consider a referendum on a proposition to ban assault weapons. Ten thousand
people voted at a certain polling station, and when the results were tallied, it turned out
that 4,800 people voted for the proposition, 3,200 voted against it and 2,000 were undecided.

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The ratio of those for the proposition to those against it was

4,800:3,200. Simplify this by dividing each term by 1,600 to find KEY WORD
that the ratio of those for the proposition to those against it was Proposition is a tentative
3:2. On the other hand, the ratio of those who had an opinion and conjectural relationship
on the proposition to those who didn’t was 8,000:2,000. or 4:1 between constructs that is
stated in a declarative form.
after dividing each term by 2,000.
When reporting voting results, news media often convert
the ratios to percentages. In this case, the percentage of those
for the proposition was 4,800/10,000 = 48/100 =0.48 x 100 = 48%.
The percentage of voters against the proposition was 3,200/10,000
= 32/100 = 0.32 x 100 = 32%, and the percentage of voters who
were undecided was 2,000/10,000 = 20/100 = 0.2 x 100 = 20%.

Computation of Proportion
A proportion is simply a statement that two ratios are equal.
It can be written in two ways: as two equal fractions a/b = c/d;
or using a colon, a:b = c:d. The following proportion is read as
“twenty is to twenty-five as four is to five.”
20/25=4/5
In problems involving proportions, we can use cross products
to test whether two ratios are equal and form a proportion. To
find the cross products of a proportion, we multiply the outer
terms, called the extremes, and the middle terms, called the
means.
Here, 20 and 5 are the extremes, and 25 and 4 are the means.
Since the cross products are both equal to one hundred, we know
that these ratios are equal and that this is a true proportion.
20/25=4/5 cross products: 20×5=25×4
100=100

We can also use cross products to find a missing term in a

proportion. Here’s an example. In a horror movie featuring a
giant beetle, the beetle appeared to be 50 feet long. However,
a model was used for the beetle that was really only 20 inches
long. A 30-inch tall model building was also used in the movie.
How tall did the building seem in the movie?
First, write the proportion, using a letter to stand for the
missing term. We find the cross products by multiplying 20
times x, and 50 times 30. Then divide to find x. Study this step
closely, because this is a technique we will use often in algebra.
We are trying to get our unknown number, x, on the left side
of the equation, all by itself. Since x is multiplied by 20, we
can use the “inverse” of multiplying, which is dividing, to get
rid of the 20. We can divide both sides of the equation by the
same number, without changing the meaning of the equation.
When we divide both sides by 20, we find that the building
will appear to be 75 feet tall.

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Step1:Write the proportion

20inches 20inches
=
50feet x
Step 2 :Multiply to find thecross products
20in. × X= 50ft.× 30in.
Step1:Divide tofind x
20in. × X 5ft.× 30in.
=
20in. 20in.
X = 75ft.
Note that we’re using the inverse of multiplying by 20-that is, dividing by 20, to get x
alone on one side.

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