Received: 6 July 2017 Revised: 17 November 2017 Accepted: 29 January 2018

DOI: 10.1002/cb.1710

REVIEW

Consumer neuroscience for marketing researchers

Joanne M. Harris1 | Joseph Ciorciari1 | John Gountas2

1
Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne
University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria, Abstract
Australia
Purpose: For many consumer neuromarketing researchers, the use of functional magnetic
2
Murdoch University, Perth, Western resonance imaging has been the most preferred neuroscience technique. However, electroen-
Australia, Australia
cephalography, eye tracking, and implicit measurements are becoming increasingly popular mar-
Correspondence
Joseph Ciorciari, Former Director, Brain and
ket research methods due to rapid technological improvements and reduced costs.
Psychological Sciences Research Centre, EEG Design: This article is an overview of the most commonly used consumer neuroscience tech-
Principal, Swinburne Neuroimaging, Centre for
niques in marketing research.
Mental Health, School of Health Sciences,
Faculty of Health, Arts, and Design, Swinburne Findings: Many peer‐reviewed journal articles in the consumer neuroscience literature usually
University of Technology, PO Box 218,
provide only a brief summary of the actual functions of each neuroscience technique used in their
Hawthorn, Melbourne, Australia 3122.
Email: jciorciari@[Link] research. Throughout the consumer neuroscience and marketing research literature, there is a
lack of comprehensive evaluation of the relative merits of all neuroscience research tools. There
is no rigorous analysis of the relative appropriateness of all the neuroscience, physiological, and
biometric research tools currently used in consumer neuroscience market research.

Originality/value: This is the first paper that provides a comprehensive review of all relevant
neuroscience techniques with a proper explanation of their functions and utility for different
types of research. Each individual neuromarketing research tools' strengths and weaknesses are
analysed for particular types of marketing research questions and highlights some of the key
research papers and authors for interested researchers to follow up.

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N neuromarketing is supported by a number of researchers (Javor, Koller,

Lee, Chamberlain, & Ransmayr, 2013), but overall the purported dis-
Over the past 15 years, consumer neuroscience has achieved some tinction does not add any real conceptual clarity. The majority of
credibility and degree of acceptance by the wider marketing research peer‐reviewed consumer neuroscience papers provide some specific
community despite its contentious origins. Consumer neuroscience is explanations of the neuroscientific tools used in their studies, but over-
also referred to as neuromarketing, but an interesting distinction all there is no detailed information about the full range of neuroscien-
between the two terms has been made by Hubert and Kenning tific tools appropriate and relevant for neuromarketing research
(2008) who proposed that consumer neuroscience refers to the aca- applications. Many researchers (Kenning & Plassmann, 2005; Kenning,
demic literature, whereas neuromarketing is the term used in the Plassmann, & Ahlert, 2007; Mostafa, 2012; Zaltman & Kosslyn, 2000)
industry. This fine distinction between consumer neuroscience and have provided specific explanations of the individual neuroscientific
tools they have used, for example, functional magnetic resonance
List of abbreviation: ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; BA, Brodmann area; dACC, imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalogra-
dorsal anterior cingulate cortex; dlPFC, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; dmPFC,
phy (MEG), and occasionally positron emission tomography (PET), but
dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; ECG, electrocardiogram; EEG,
electroencephalography; EMG, electromyography; fMRI, functional magnetic there is no comprehensive review and explanation of the full range
resonance imaging; FTDS, functional transcranial Doppler sonography; GSR, of neuromarketing research tools available. Detailed discussions of
galvanic skin response; HR, heart rate; IAT, implicit association testing; lOFC,
alternative neuroscience research tools are often missing, and there
lateral orbital frontal cortex; LORETA, low‐resolution electromagnetic
tomography; MEG, magnetoencephalography; mOFC, medial orbital frontal is no comprehensive review of their relative strengths and weaknesses
cortex; NAcc, nucleus accumbens; OFC, orbital frontal cortex; PCC, posterior for different types of marketing research questions.
cingulate cortex; PET, positron emission tomography; PFC, prefrontal cortex;
A small number of papers provide a general overview of different
rTMS, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; SST, steady‐state
topography; TMS (single‐pulse), transcranial magnetic stimulation; vmPFC, neuroscience research tools, but they are as comprehensive as they
ventromedial prefrontal cortex; VTA, ventral tegmental area could be. For example, Venkatraman et al. (2015) presented an

J Consumer Behav. 2018;17:239–252. [Link]/journal/cb Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 239
240 HARRIS ET AL.

overview of EEG, fMRI, implicit measurements such as implicit associ- 2010). Self‐reporting questionnaires are commonly used in marketing
ation testing (IAT), eye tracking, and biometrics of heart rate, breathing, research, but they are often unreliable or misleading due to uncon-
and skin conductance to test the interactive relationships of attention, scious biases in human judgement, for example, participant response
affect, memory, and desirability of advertising messages. Fortunato, de biases and researcher interpretations, or due to inbuilt bias in the
Giraldi, and de Oliveira (2014) briefly discuss fMRI, EEG, PET, MEG, questionnaire instrument design and data interpretation errors
eye tracking, facial recognition (electromyography [EMG]), heart rate (LaPiere, 1934). Conscious self‐reporting does not enable adequate
(electrocardiogram [ECG]), and galvanic skin response (GSR) in addition recollection or assessment of complex emotions or affective processes,
to a much broader review of neuromarketing. Ohme and colleagues and therefore, they need to be used with caution and supplemented by
(Ohme, Matukin, & Pacula‐Lesniak, 2011; Ohme, Reykowska, Wiener, other more appropriate multimethod research tools (Davidson, 2004).
& Choromanska, 2009) outline eye tracking, EEG, facial recognition
(facial EMG), and GSR. Senior, Smyth, Cooke, Shaw, and Peel (2007)
provide an overview of fMRI, MEG, and transcranial magnetic stimula- 3 | N E U R O S C I EN C E T E CH I N I Q U E S U S E D I N
tion (TMS). Therefore, this paper addresses the various gaps in the lit- CONSUMER RESEARCH
erature and aims to provide an overview and explanation of all the
Consumer neuroscience research uses quantitative empirical research
neuroscience tools used in marketing research. The purpose of the
methods to measure nonconscious preferences and executive cogni-
paper is to act as a guide of the various neuroscience tools available
tive processes such as decision making. Consumer neuroscience
for marketing researchers interested in consumer neuroscience with-
includes a range of neuroscientific and physiological research tech-
out having to read the extensive and specialised neuroscience, psycho-
niques to measure changes in neural electrical or metabolic activity
physiology, neuroeconomics, and consumer neuroscience literature.
(Ahlert, Kenning, & Plassmann, 2006) to study cognitive and affective
The structure of the paper is divided into five distinct sections.
processes (Ciorciari, 2012). Changes in electrical activity are measured
First, Table 1 presents a summary of the most relevant consumer neu-
by various techniques including EEG, MEG, steady‐state topography
roscience reviews, meta‐analyses, and seminal papers published in
(SST), and TMS. Changes in metabolic brain processes are measured
peer‐reviewed journals. Second, the general background to consumer
by fMRI, PET, and functional transcranial Doppler sonography (fTCS;
neuroscience is presented, followed by the neuroscience techniques
Ahlert et al., 2006).
used in consumer research. Third, the paper discusses the neurosci-
Physiological biometric measurement tools include GSR, heart rate
ence tools used to measure changes in electrical neural activity.
(ECG), eye tracking, facial recognition (facial EMG), and IAT. Until
Fourth, we explain and analyse the distinctive attributes of metabolic
recently, the majority of consumer neuroscience research has predom-
neuroscience techniques, which measure blood oxygenation levels;
inantly used fMRI to measure brain activation in response to marketing
and fifth, we analyse the neuroscience techniques based on temporal
stimuli and decision‐making experiments (Rilling & Sanfey, 2011;
resolution, which measure changes in electrical brain activity. The
Smidts et al., 2014), but there are many other options according to
order of inclusion of each research tool is prioritised according to tem-
the type or research objective and resources available. The following
poral characteristics (e.g., EEG and MEG) and then by the metabolic‐
section will elucidate on the temporal‐based neuroscientific research
based tools (e.g., fMRI) followed by the biometric‐ and physiological‐
tools used in marketing research, explaining the fundamental principles
based tools. Finally, the paper discusses the relative merits and appro-
and analysing their relative strengths and weaknesses. The section
priateness for different types of research questions and concludes with
compiles a list of the most representative studies to guide further
some pertinent recommendations for researchers and industry
investigations by interested marketing researchers and practitioners.
practitioners.

4 | T E M P O RA L ‐ B A S E D N E U R O S C I E N C E
2 | B A CKG R O U N D TO C O N S U M ER T O O LS U S E D TO M E A S U R E C H A N G E S I N
N E U R O S C I E N C R E S E A RC H TO O LS ELECTRICAL NEURAL ACTIVITY

Consumer neuroscience uses neuroscientific tools for quantitative

evaluation of marketing stimuli, for example, advertising communica-
4.1 | Electroencephalography
tions, brand images, pricing decisions, and value preference evaluation. The first EEG recording was conducted on monkeys and rabbits in
The serious limitations of traditional market research methods such as 1875 by Richard Caton (Andreassi, 2007) and was followed by human
quantitative self‐report survey questionnaires, and qualitative research recordings by Dr Hans Berger in 1924 (Ciorciari, 2012). Major develop-
such as depth interviews and focus groups for measuring internal cog- ments in EEG recordings occurred due to technological advances such
nitive responses to external marketing stimuli such as advertisements, as digital, computing, and software development, followed by
have been well documented (Ohme et al., 2011). Traditional market Jasper's (1958) standardised International 10/20 system for EEG elec-
research methods tend to be very subjective self‐reports incapable of trode scalp placement locations maps (Ciorciari, 2012).
capturing consumers' emotional preferences, and their verbal‐lan- EEG is a noninvasive technique that measures changes in electrical
guage‐based responses are often difficult to interpret accurately neural activity in the cortex (Ciorciari, 2012; Ohme et al., 2009). EEG
(Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). They are liable to distortion and bias, which measures the frequency of the brain's electrical currents (Ohme
is difficult to measure or control entirely (Treleaven‐Hassard et al., et al., 2011) and changes in voltage via electrodes placed on the scalp,
HARRIS ET AL. 241

TABLE 1 Consumer neuroscience reviews and meta‐analysis

Reviews and seminal

Tools articles Title Topic
fMRI, EEG, eye tracking Karmarkar and Yoon “Consumer neuroscience: Advances in “Affective processing, subjective value,
(2016, p. 160) understanding consumer psychology” persuasion, and attention”
Decision making, future research
Implicit association testing, eye Venkatraman et al. “Predicting advertising success beyond Research: predicting the success of
tracking, heart rate biometrics, (2015) traditional measures: New insights from advertisements
breathing, skin conductance, neurophysiological methods and market Comprehensive overview of implicit
EEG, and fMRI response modelling” measurements in relation to advertising
research
Ventral striatum, the most predictive brain
region in response to advertising
Review, fMRI, TMS, TDCS Plassmann et al. “Consumer neuroscience: Applications, Majority of consumer neuroscience
(2015) challenges, and possible solutions” publications have been in neuroscience
and science journals. Need for consumer
neuroscience to publish in marketing
journals and contribute to marketing theory
Review, fMRI, eye tracking, Smidts et al. (2014) “Advancing consumer neuroscience” Consumer neuroscience development, three
GSR, EEG, facial coding new areas of influence: genetics, molecular,
and computational neuroscience. Greater
prediction accuracy of consumer behaviour
Research topics, fMRI, EEG, GSR, Javor et al. (2013) “Neuromarketing and consumer Consumer neuroscience from perspective of
structural MRI neuroscience: Contributions to neurology. Trust, reward systems, ethics,
neurology” neurological patients, consumer
vulnerability, compulsive buying, neuromania
Pupillary dilation, eye tracking, Solnais, Andreu‐ “The contribution of neuroscience to Decision making, memory, emotion, rewards.
HR, EEG, MEG, EMG, GSR Perez, Sánchez‐ consumer research: A conceptual Scope of consumer neuroscience.
Fernández, and framework and empirical review” Neuroimaging contribution limited. P300
Andréu‐Abela
(2013)
Eye tracking, EEG, fMRI, Plassmann, Ramsøy, “Branding the brain: A critical review Overview of combination of neuroscience and
skin conductance, TMS, and Milosavljevic and outlook” consumer psychology of brands.
TDCS, PET (2012) Representation, attention, decision‐making,
value
fMRI Levy and Glimcher “The root of all value: A neural common Choice, rewards, decision making, value. Meta‐
(2012) currency for choice” analysis of fMRI studies, vmPFC/OFC.
Addiction, gambling, obesity
fMRI, EEG, PET, SCR, EMG, TMS, Kenning and “Consumer neuroscience: An overview of Decision making, consumer policy, neuroethics,
MEG Linzmajer (2011) an emerging discipline with implications consumer protection
for consumer policy”
fMRI, EEG, PET, TMS, eye Plassmann, Yoon, “Consumer neuroscience” Recent methods, consumer neuroscience
tracking, skin conductance Feinberg, and Shiv concepts, future research
(2011)
fMRI, EEG, MEG Fisher, Chin, and “Defining neuromarketing: Practices Neuromarketing controversy. Psychiatry.
Klitzman (2010) and professional challenges” Actual practices, history of neuromarketing;
ethical issues. Bioethics, neuroethics,
implications
fMRI, EEG Hubert and Kenning “A current overview of consumer Definition of consumer neuroscience and
(2008) neuroscience” neuromarketing. Neuroeconomics, reward,
punishment, decision making
EEG, MEG, PET, fMRI, SST Plassmann, Ambler, “What can advertisers learn from Overview of ad processing, brand memories,
Braeutigam, and neuroscience?” behavioural effects, and intentions.
Kenning (2007) Advantages/disadvantages of main
neuroscience techniques. Brain memories,
emotion, decision making, consumer choice
process
EEG, MEG, PET, fMRI Kenning and “NeuroEconomics: An overview from NeuroEconomics, decision making,
Plassmann (2005) an economic perspective” and emotions
EEG: when sequential or parallel
processing occurs
MEG: when sequential or parallel
processing occurs
fMRI: where brain activation occurs
PET: where brain activation occurs

Note. EEG = electroencephalography; EMG = electromyography; fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging; GSR = galvanic skin response; HR = heart
rate; MEG = magnetoencephalography; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; OFC = orbitofrontal cortex; PET = positron emission imaging; SCR = skin con-
ductance response; TDCS = transcranial direct‐current stimulation; TMS = transcranial magnetic stimulation; vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The
tables in this article are not definitive but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer
neuroscience.
242 HARRIS ET AL.

which are then amplified to facilitate appropriate statistical analysis 4.1.4 | Electroencephalography strengths
(Ahlert et al., 2006; Banich & Compton, 2010). Electrodes (also called The EEG's core strength is the high level of temporal resolution that
leads) operate as individual channels, which record electrical brain can record neural activity by millisecond and submillisecond (Ahlert
activity. Researchers can use one or over 100 electrodes with “high‐ et al., 2006). However, EEG recordings can be highly susceptible to
density‐array recording systems” (Banich & Compton, 2010, p. 69). internal (endogenous) artefacts such as eye movements, speech, per-
One electrode attached to the mastoid bone (as an inactive site) spiration, and upper‐body muscle contraction and movement. The
operates as a reference (baseline) to compare electrical activity from external (exogenous) recording environment can also contaminate
the other electrode sites. High‐density array systems enable the aver- the EEG data, and hence interpretation. Analysis of EEG data requires
aging of one electrode activity to the other electrode sites (Banich & artefact to be quantified and removed using computer software pro-
Compton, 2010). EEG records brain waveform variations (Nunez & grams (Ciorciari, 2012).
Srinivasan, 2006) from cortical rather than subcortical areas (Ciorciari,
2012). Electrode activity measures the voltage size of an electrical
potential (observation) and the frequency rate of oscillation (cycles) 4.1.5 | Electroencephalography limitations
in Hertz per second (Banich & Compton, 2010). The EEG's major limitation is the inability to identify accurately the
Synchronous firing of neurons is considered a normal brain location of brain activity as numerous locational sources can produce
function (Banich & Compton, 2010). Using electrodes (sensors) identical potentials on the scalp area (Ahlert et al., 2006). Technical
attached on the human scalp, researchers are able to aggregate issues can compromise the quality of EEG recordings such as techni-
and record summed potentials of neuronal activities (Ahlert et al., cian error during data collection, faulty equipment, variations in elec-
2006; Sanei & Chambers, 2013). The five main EEG frequency band- trode placement, unstable reference system, poor electrode scalp
widths are delta (δ, 0.5–4 Hz), theta (θ, 5–7 Hz), alpha (α, 8–14 Hz), beta contact (resulting in high impedance), and variations in skull size, scalp
(β, 15–30 Hz), and gamma (γ, 30–50 Hz). Neuronal bandwidth changes thickness, and brain tissue. Furthermore, the subject's emotional
according to the types of cognitive and sensory stimuli exposure and states, educational level of development, age, and neurological and
processing. The different frequencies indicate different brain wave- cognitive conditions can also affect the quality of the EEG data record-
forms of varying lengths (Ohme et al., 2011), and each frequency band- ings (Ciorciari, 2012). However, increasingly, functional imaging tech-
width is associated with a power range (amplitude; Ciorciari, 2012). nological advancements have achieved higher spatial localisation of
EEG recordings using the LORETA software (low‐resolution electro-
magnetic tomography), which uses three‐dimensional head modelling
4.1.1 | Evoked potentials to accurately identify neural substrates (Ciorciari, 2012).
Evoked potentials (EPs) are the recorded responses that occur in Modelling methods of EEG recordings can present problems
response to stimuli, which may, for example, be sensory, physical, audi- related to the validity of the neuronal activity. EEG data can be
tory, tactile, or visual. EPs are classified as early potentials with short analysed using either forward or inverse modelling methods. Forward
latency that occurs before 100 ms, mid‐latency potentials (100– modelling is when the electrical current from a brain neuron travels
200 ms), and late potentials (later latency from 200 to 300 ms to the scalp to reach one of the EEG electrodes (observed potential
onwards). Early EPs include the auditory brainstem response with audi- or data). The forward modelling method attempts to predict what type
tory potentials occurring before 10 ms. Somatosensory EPs occurring of neuronal observation will occur, based on the identified location of
before 20 ms are influenced by the location of the stimulus in the body the neuronal activity (Oostenveld, 2015). In contrast, inverse modelling
and the distance from the brain. Visual EPs start manifesting after uses the observed potential (observation or EEG data generated) to
35 ms and before 60 ms (Ciorciari, 2012). identify what is the brain location source of the neuronal observation
(Oostenveld, 2015).
The EEG's linear inverse problem occurs because neuronal source
4.1.2 | Action potentials localisation is based only on scalp measurements. However, identifying
Action potentials occur when a nerve transmits information, generated source formations is problematic because electrical currents from dif-
by various stimuli, and have a duration of 5–10 ms. However, nerves in ferent locations and directions can reach the same observed potential
the central nervous system are initiated at the synapses because of (electrode; Ahlert et al., 2006). Inverse modelling solutions aim to
electrochemical activity (Sanie & Chalmers, 2007). address this problem of accurate localisation tomography that have
low levels of localisation error (Pascual‐Marqui, 1999). The inverse
solution uses three‐dimensional head models (Astolfi et al., 2009) in
4.1.3 | Cognitive potentials combination with functional source localisation tomography software
Cognitive potentials occur at a later stage and are conscious responses such as LORETA (Pascual‐Marqui, 1999). With inverse solution soft-
to the stimuli effects. The P300 cognitive event‐related potential ware, of which there are a wide variety, source localisation is based
(waveform; occurring at 250–400 ms with a positive polarity latency on assumptions about estimated density (Pascual‐Marqui, 1999), con-
peak) indicates the degree of cognitive activity change due to the stim- duction volume (Kenning & Plassmann, 2005), and time and frequency
uli effects. The N400 negative polarity latency peak is considered to be sources in the brain (Astolfi et al., 2009). The development of the linear
a language potential that occurs in response to semantic incongruities inverse solution enables the production of statistically significant phys-
(Ciorciari, 2012). iological data. The ability to capture millisecond and submillisecond
HARRIS ET AL. 243

temporal activation recordings is the strongest advantage of EEG 2014), prediction of success (Boksem & Smidts, 2015), and brand
(Ahlert et al., 2006). choice evaluation to predict future choices (Telpaz, Webb, & Levy,
2015). Table 2 presents a summary of advertising research using EEG
research methodology.
4.1.6 | Electroencephalography in advertising research
EEG was first used in advertising research by Krugman (1971) to mea-
sure brain waves in response to advertising stimuli. From the 1980s 4.2 | Steady‐state topography
onwards, EEG began to be used on a regular basis for advertising
SST, originally called steady‐state probe topography, is a variant of
research with Rothschild, Thorson, Reeves, Hirsch, and Goldstein
EEG, which measures the speed of information processing in the brain
(1986) exploring attention, emotion, and learning, using TV commer-
(Silberstein, Harris, Nield, & Pipingas, 2000). SST is commonly used to
cials. Rothschild, Hyun, Reeves, Thorson, and Goldstein (1988)
test TV commercials due to its fast temporal resolution (Orzan, Zara, &
investigated hemispheric differences and TV commercials that
Purcarea, 2012. SST has been used to measure memory and engage-
used rational–emotion, visual–audio, and verbal–nonverbal‐based
ment effectiveness of advertising, which depends on whether the
approaches. Rossiter, Silberstein, Harris, and Nield (2001) showed that
key message and branding image are encoded in long‐term memory
the transfer of short‐term memories to long‐term memories of TV
assumed to be an indicator of future behaviour choice (Silberstein
commercials occurred in the left hemisphere. This early research
et al., 2000). Table 3 summarises the range of research work carried
explored the use of EEG type of tools, including steady‐state probe
out using SST in consumer neuroscience and decision‐making areas.
topography, to monitor the memory effectiveness of advertising being
encoded into long‐term memory and cognitive–emotional processing
and responses to advertising stimuli including nonconscious awareness
4.3 | Magnetoencephalography
(Ohme et al.,2009).
EEG's high temporal resolution and ability to measure surface cor- MEG is similar to EEG but measures neural magnetic field activity.
tical electrical activity of submilliseconds indicates that EEG, rather MEG has good temporal resolution and greater spatial localisation
than fMRI, is more useful for measuring neural responses of dynamic recording of brain structures at a deeper subcortical level than EEG.
messages in TV commercials (Ohme & Matukin, 2012; Ohme et al., MEG has been used in advertising research to measure cognitive and
2009). Currently, EEG is frequently used in advertising research to affective appeals of advertising messages as well as decision‐making
measure consumer responses to emotional engagement (Ohme & processing, but to a much lesser degree than fMRI and EEG. One of
Matukin, 2012), personal relevance (Pynta et al., 2014), cognitive its main weaknesses is the limited spatial brain activation localisation
attention (Gountas, Ciorciari, Gountas, & Huddle, 2014; Rothschild in comparison with fMRI (Ahlert et al., 2006). Table 4 summarises some
et al., 1986; Vecchiato et al., 2010), facial recognition (Gountas et al., key studies using MEG.

TABLE 2 Use of EEG in consumer neuroscience and neuroscience research

Theme Reference Neural correlates Research
Personal relevance Pynta et al. (2014) BA 10 Personal relevance
Attention Gountas et al. (2014) BA 10 and 11 Recall, judgement, and attention
Vecchiato et al. (2010) Left frontal brain region activation Remembered TV commercials
Treleaven‐Hassard et al. (2010) P3a, P300 Attention, interactive TV advertising
Rothschild et al. (1986) Left or right hemisphere dominant, Attention, emotion, learning, and memory
stimuli ERP, alpha 300 ms using TV commercials. Personal relevance,
warmth, entertainment, dislike
Emotional Ohme and Matukin (2012) Frontal asymmetry model (left PFC approach Emotional engagement; Sony Bravia
engagement and right PFC withdraw); powerful positive advertisement case study. Positive emotion,
unconscious approach response unconsciousness
Face recognition Gountas et al. (2014) BA 10, 11, 18, 21, 38 Image interpretation and processing of faces
Gountas et al. (2014) BA 21, 46 Working memory and recognition of faces
Prediction Boksem and Smidts (2015) Beta frequencies Individual preference and predictor of movies'
future commercial success
Telpaz et al. (2015) Midfrontal electrode, increase N200, preferred Evaluation of pairs of brands to predict future
product correlation with weaker theta band choices. Accuracy of prediction dependent
power on larger difference. Cardinal or ordinal
distance in EEG data activity between
product pairs
Rothschild and Hyun (1990) Longer alpha blocking periods and right TV commercials and memory or recognition
hemispheric laterality during onset or exposure prediction of attention, memory, arousal, and
of TV commercial, followed by left hemispheric information processing
laterality post onset period seconds later at the
occipital lobe

Note. BA = Brodmann area; EEG = electroencephalography; ERP = event‐related potential; PFC = prefrontal cortex. The tables in this article are not defin-
itive but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer neuroscience.
244 HARRIS ET AL.

TABLE 3 Use of steady‐state topography in consumer neuroscience research

Theme Reference Neural correlates Research
Memory Silberstein and Nield (2015) Lateral prefrontal sites, left and right; left hemisphere Long‐term memory of TV advertising
effectiveness
Rossiter et al. (2001) Left hemisphere Where (location of) visual stimuli are when
transmitted from working to long‐term
memory
Silberstein et al. (2000) Explores cortical differences of front and back but not left Long‐term memory, and recognition of TV
and right hemispheres. Left posterior frontal lobe are commercials
also significant areas of activation
Face processing Mayes, Pipingas, Silberstein, Parietotemporal region 170 ms post stimulus and frontal Emotional face processing with moving and
and Johnston (2009) region increase of inhibitory processing for static stimuli; nonmoving imagery; discrimination of
temporal region activity in emotional processing of faces gender more accurate than emotion
Decision making Silberstein, Ciorciari, and “Prefrontal, central and right parieto‐temporal regions” Wisconsin card sorting test of prefrontal
Pipingas (1995, p. 24) lobe during decision making
Silberstein, Ciorciari, Prefrontal and parietal regions Wisconsin card sorting test and decision
Pipingas, Schier, and Ma making
(1992)
Attention Silberstein et al. (1990) Occipital or parietal region, centro or parietal region, right Attention visually evoked potential
frontal sites topography

Note. The tables in this article are not definitive but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer
neuroscience.

4.4 | Transcranial magnetic stimulation to test causal relationships between advertising communication
stimuli and brain activation. A list of representative consumer
In contrast to MEG, TMS uses a coil or number of coils via a magnetic
neuroscience and neuroeconomics research studies using TMS, rTMS,
field to stimulate the scalp in order to alter brain patterns or activity,
and transcranial direct current stimulation are listed in Table 5. The
which produce an electrical response resulting in neurons synchro-
following section explores in more detail all the metabolic‐based
nously becoming depolarised. As a result, the TMS coil alters the likeli-
neuroscience research tools, explaining their fundamental functions
hood of the neurons firing in synchronisation, and therefore,
and relative advantages and disadvantages for neuromarketing
researchers can isolate a functioning group of neurons to test their
researchers and practitioners.
causal effects (Banich & Compton, 2010). Therefore, TMS can both
facilitate and disrupt brain activity of a particular group of neurons to
test the brain networks that are responsible for specific brain activa- 5 | N E U R S O C I EN C E T O O LS M EA S U R I N G
tion and behavioural outcomes. Single‐pulse TMS and repetitive TMS CHANGES IN METABOLIC NEURAL ACTIVITY
(rTMS) are the two types of TMS. Single‐pulse TMS involves stimula-
tion that occurs at a particular time during a task, whereas rTMS Human brain functioning depends on complex interaction between bil-
delivers a number of pulses at 50 Hz at different temporal intervals lions of nerve cells communicating via electrochemical activities. fMRI
ranging from 10 to 1,000 ms. (Banich & Compton, 2010). measures metabolic changes (energy consumption) of blood oxygen
The main advantage of TMS is that it is able to confirm or discon- flow. The fMRI technology has been the most popular technique used
firm if certain brain regions play a key role in particular cognitive in consumer research (Plassmann, Venkatraman, Huettel, & Yoon,
functions. TMS is also able to identify whether a brain region deter- 2015) because of its superior localisation of brain activity in all cortical
mines a particular behaviour or is the result of interconnectivity and subcortical brain regions.
between certain brain regions (Banich & Compton, 2010). The TMS
limitations are that it is only capable of stimulating brain regions close
to the scalp's surface rather than cortical or subcortical regions.
5.1 | Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Furthermore, TMS is unable to stimulate precisely small and particular Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a noninvasive neuroscien-
isolated brain structures. Senior et al. (2007) have proposed that the tific technology using radio waves and magnetic fields to measure
use of fMRI, MEG, and TMS together, in that order, has the potential neural activity (function), whereas magnetic resonance imaging

TABLE 4 Use of magnetoencephalography in consumer neuroscience research

Theme Reference Neural correlates Research topic

Cognitive‐ and Ioannides et al. (2000) Superior prefrontal and posterior parietal structures activated Consumer reactions and decisions for
affective‐based during cognitive appeals. Amygdala, orbitofrontal regions, affective‐ and cognitive‐based TV
appeals for decision and brainstem during affective appeals advertising appeals
making
Decision making Zaltman and Kosslyn Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (low valence or withdraw); Emotional responses to retail
(2000) activation with secondary visual cortex (Areas 18 and 19 and environments, anxiety
positive visual imagery)
HARRIS ET AL. 245

TABLE 5 Use of TMS, rTMS, and TDCS in consumer and neuroeconomics research
Theme Reference Neural correlates Research
Cognitive and affective decision Baumgartner, Schiller, Rieskamp, Disruption of the right, but not Effects on in‐group versus out‐ group bias
making, about risk taking and Gianotti, and Knoch (2014) left, temporoparietal junction and decision of retaliation and
consumer preferences punishment
Baumgartner, Knoch, Hotz, Activation of the right dlPFC and Decision about fairness, economic self‐
Eisenegger, and Fehr (2011) the posterior ventromedial interest conflict; and willingness to
prefrontal cortex accept additional costs
Fecteau et al. (2007); Knoch et al. Subjects received rTMS on the Cognitive skills affect preferences and risk
(2006); Shiv and Fedorikhin right or the left dlPFC taking during ambiguous and
(1999); Ward and Mann (2000) nonambiguous decision making
Fregni et al. (2008) Modulation of the dlPFC using Food craving and consumer reactions to
TDCS food stimuli
Camus et al. (2009) Use of rTMS to the right dlPFC rTMS testing economic valuation supports
caused a decrease in the values the notion that the dlPFC plays a causal
assigned to food stimuli role in assessing value choices
Cheng and Lee (2016) TDCS effects on the prefrontal Neuromodulation reduces risk‐taking
cortex decisions but is influenced by baseline
impulsivity trait

Note. dlPFC = dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; rTMS = repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; TDCS = transcranial direct‐current stimulation. The tables
in this article are not definitive but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer neuroscience.

measures brain structure (Ahlert et al., 2006). An fMRI records signals Zaltman and Kosslyn (2000) used PET scanning in marketing
and variations of blood‐oxygen‐level‐dependent activity in various research to analyse retail environments and emotional responses to
brain regions of interest. It is excellent in identifying the specific marketing visual material. However, PET is not commonly used in con-
brain location at a very high resolution but does not have good sumer neuroscience research due to the use of radioactive substances,
temporal resolution (although it has a temporal resolution greater than however small, and the invasiveness of the technique. Usage of PET
PET). In addition, fMRI cannot record certain cognitive processes techniques has little potential beyond clinical studies and is therefore
because brain activation has a very small impact on the blood‐ unlikely to be used in neuromarketing experiments.
oxygenated levels detectable by fMRI (Kwong et al., 1992; Sanie &
Chalmers, 2007).
5.3 | Functional transcranial Doppler sonography
Decision consumer neuroscience research has been conducted
predominantly with fMRI research tools because of its topographical Functional transcranial Doppler sonography uses ultrasound to mea-
accuracy of brain activity (Levy & Glimcher, 2012; Rilling & Sanfey, sure the rate and change of blood flow between two cerebral arteries
2011; Smidts et al., 2014). Recent consumer neuroscience studies (Deppe, Ringelstein, & Knecht, 2004). The fTCS can be portable and
have identified neural structures especially in the frontal lobes has high temporal resolution but low spatial resolution (Ahlert et al.,
hypothesised to process reward and value perceptions influencing 2006). At this stage, fTCS does not seem to have been used in con-
different types of decision‐making processes (Levy & Glimcher, sumer neuroscience research because of the weaknesses in locating
2012; Plassmann et al., 2015; Smidts et al., 2014; Solnais et al., 2013). brain activation related to cognitive processing tasks. The next section
Table 6 provides a list of representative fMRI studies carried out in explores the physiological biometric‐based research tools used in con-
consumer neuroscience. sumer neuroscience research.

5.2 | Positron emission tomography 6 | N E U R O S C I EN C E T O O LS M EA S U R I N G

P H Y S I O L O G I C A L C H A N G E S I N RE S P O N S E T O
PET scanners measure modified molecules in body tissues. PET is able M A R K E T I N G ST I M U L I
to identify changes in metabolic processes in body using nuclear med-
icine functional imaging techniques, which emit gamma rays to activate Physiological tools used in marketing research include eye tracking,
radionuclide tracers (e.g., an analogue of glucose) introduced into the heart rate through ECG, GSR measures, facial recognition through
body. Computer software reconstruct three‐dimensional images of tis- EMG, and IAT techniques.
sue metabolic activity due to positron‐emitting radionuclides (tracer).
Radionuclides produce positrons, which are electron antiparticles,
which have identical chemical elements as nonradioactive isotypes
6.1 | Eye tracking
(Ahlert et al., 2006). The radionuclides' positrons release radiation, Nixon (1924) and Karslake (1940) first documented eye movement
and PET scanners can identify the spatial location, dispersal, and patterns in response to viewing print advertising stimuli. Fitts, Jones,
metabolism of the altered molecules. PET scanners have high spatial and Milton (1950) monitored airplane pilots' eye movement during
resolution but a low level of temporal resolution (Ahlert et al., 2006). aircraft landing to understand their decision‐making processes
PET studies require participants to take in a small amount of radioac- (Wedel & Pieters, 2008). Russo (1978) highlighted the usefulness
tive substance, which is invasive and therefore reduces the usage of of eye movement analysis for the evaluation of marketing effective-
PET in neuromarketing research. ness and understanding of consumer decisions and information
246 HARRIS ET AL.

TABLE 6 Seminal functional magnetic resonance imaging studies in consumer neuroscience and neuroscience
Themes Reference Neural correlates Research
Value Bartra, McGuire, and Kable vmPFC, posterior cingulate cortex, dmPFC, Subjective value; positive and negative
(2013) thalamus, striatum, and bilateral anterior valence
insula
Bartra et al. (2013, p. 412) “Anterior insula, dmPFC, dorsal and posterior Subjective value decision making based on
striatum, and thalamus.” Arousal or salience, value perception; “valuation system”
positive and negative vmPFC, anterior
ventral striatum
Plassmann et al. (2012) dlPFC, hippocampus, lOFC Predicted remembered and experienced
value perceptions
Plassmann, O'Doherty, and mOFC Value, including WTP and value of
Rangel (2007) nonessential rewards
Knutson, Rick, Wimmer, Nucleus accumbens Value perception preferences
Prelec, and Loewenstein
(2007)
Wallis and Miller (2003) dmPFC Value perception preferences
Wallis and Miller (2003) dlPFC Incentive value
Conflict Plassmann et al. (2012) ACC Conflict resolution
Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, ACC Inner conflict
Nystrom, and Cohen (2003)
Fear Rilling and Sanfey (2011) Amygdala The amygdala may mediate betrayal fear,
aversion to inequity, and negative emotion,
inhibiting trust processing
Gupta, Koscik, Bechara, and Amygdala Fear reactions
Tranel (2011)
Envy Rilling and Sanfey (2011) Dorsal ACC Social pain associated with envy
Trust Rilling and Sanfey (2011) vmPFC Associated with different components of
trust, response to inequity, regulation of
emotion, failure to comply with social
norms, and the resultant potential
punishment, empathy and altruism
Rilling and Sanfey (2011) dmPFC Evaluation of others' trustworthiness
Moll et al. (2006) Anterior prefrontal cortex When altruism is favoured over self‐interest
Sanfey et al. (2003) dlPFC Evaluation of unfair offers
Reward and Rilling and Sanfey (2011) mOFC Reward processing systems
risk Rilling and Sanfey (2011) Ventral striatum Reward processing
Knutson and Bossaerts (2007) Insula Risk perception and expectation
Knutson and Wimmer (2007); Ventral striatum Reward evaluation in terms of expectations
Sanfey, Loewenstein,
McClure, and Cohen (2006)
Moll et al. (2006) Mesolimbic reward system including dorsal Making charitable donations, also activated
and ventral striatum, ventral tegmental area with receiving monetary rewards
Knutson, Adams, Fong, and Nucleus accumbens Anticipation of reward
Hommer (2001)
Prediction Chua et al. (2011) dmPFC Predicted quitting
Janes et al. (2010) Dorsal ACC Relapse vulnerability, for example, smoking
Janes et al., 2010) Insula Vulnerability to relapse, for example, smoking
WTP Plassmann, O'Doherty, and OFC, dmPFC WTP
Rangel (2007)
Bechara, Tranel, and Damasio
(2000); Plassmann,
O'Doherty, and Rangel
(2007colname="col4">WTP
Knutson et al. (2007) Insula Processing of excessively high prices
Decision Plassmann, O'Doherty, and mOFC, dlPFC Goal values appetitive–aversive decision
making Rangel (2010) making
Deppe et al. (2007) Anterior cingulate paralimbic processes Decision making intuitive–cognitive,
attractiveness evaluation framing effect of
liking or nonliking bias
Moll et al. (2006) mOFC, subgenual and lOFC Decision to give or oppose charitable
donations
Moll et al. (2006) Subgenual area in particular posterior mOFC, Activated during costly and noncostly
ventral cingulate cortex (BA 25) decisions regarding donations
Moll et al. (2006) lOFC (known as BA 11/47) Activated in opposition to costly and
noncostly charitable donations
Deppe, Schwindt, Kugel, Medial prefrontal cortex (BAs 9, 46, 7/19, and Economic decision‐making emotions, self‐
Plassmann, and Kenning 6). “Simultaneously, activity was increased in reflection. Activation observed for
(2005, p. 171) the inferior precuneus and posterior previously known favourite brands related
cingulate (BA 7), right superior frontal gyrus with reduced activation in the dorsolateral
(BA 10), right supramarginal gyrus (BA 40), prefrontal, posterior parietal, and occipital
cortices and the left premotor area

(Continues)
HARRIS ET AL. 247

TABLE 6 (Continued)

Themes Reference Neural correlates Research

and, most pronounced, in the vmPFC (BA
10).”
Deppe et al. (2005) vmPFC, medial prefrontal cortex, OFC Framing effect bias, suggestibility, credibility
judgement, rewards, and integration of
emotions into decision making
Bush, Luu, and Posner (2000) ACC Integrating motivational information and
emotion during decision making
Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, Amygdala Decision making
and Lee (1999)
Self‐reflection Schaefer, Berens, Heinze, and Superior or medial frontal gyrus (BA 8/9) Self‐reflection
Rotte (2006)
Disgust and anger Sanfey et al. (2003) Insula Disgust and anger due to unfairness
Memory McGaugh (2000) Hippocampus Long‐term memory consolidation
Eichenbaum (2000) Hippocampus Declarative memory
Emotion Damasio (1994) Amygdala Primary emotions

Note. ACC = anterior cingulate cortex; BA = Brodmann area; dmPFC = dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; lOFC = lateral orbital frontal cortex; mOFC = medial
orbital frontal cortex; OFC = orbitofrontal cortex; vmPFC = ventromedial prefrontal cortex; WTP = willingness to pay. The tables in this article are not defin-
itive but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer neuroscience.

processing. The development and improvement of eye tracking tech- There are three basic eye movement types: (a) saccades, (b)
nologies since the early 1990s to the present have contributed a smooth pursuit, and (c) nystagmoid (Andreassi, 2007). Saccades (move-
great deal of useful neuromarketing research output (Wedel & ment) are eye fixations (pauses) that occur in rapid succession.
Pieters, 2008). Fixations occur for approximately 0.25 to 1 second (250–1,000 ms),
Eye tracking is used to measure eye movements and changes in whereas saccadic movement from between “1/50 to 1/10 of a second”
pupil dilation and contraction (Andreassi, 2007). The iris' radial fibres (20–100 ms; Andreassi, 2007, p. 309). Smooth pursuit eye movements
produce pupil dilation because of somatic nervous system neuronal occur because of fixating upon and following a moving object.
excitation. Contraction occurs when the iris' circular fibres are inner- Nystagmoid movements are involuntary oscillations such as “slow hor-
vated by peripheral nervous system neurons. Pupillometry measures izontal sweeps and quick returns to the original eye position”
diameter changes in the pupil occurring during dilation and contrac- (Andreassi, 2007, p. 310).
tion. The pupil is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which Following calibration, eye‐tracking technologies monitor an
governs the iris muscles and is concerned with emotional and voli- individual's eye movements such as saccades and fixations. There are
tional types of thinking (Andreassi, 2007). The light and accommoda- four types of eye movement data commonly recorded with eye track-
tion reflex mainly cause changes in pupil diameter. The light reflex ing. These are “the duration of first fixation (DFF), the latency of first
denotes pupil dilation (up to 8 or 9 mm) that occurs in response to fixation (LFF), the number of fixations (NOF), and the total contact
dim light and contraction (down to 1.5 mm) due to bright light. When time (TCT) on each ROI” (region of interest; Ho, 2014, p. 147). As a
both eyes are used during object fixation, changes in pupil diameter result, hot spots (heat maps), gaze plots, and scan paths are identified
are referred to as the accommodation reflex. Changes below 0.5 mm in response to marketing stimuli.
occur in response to cognitive processing and behavioural changes Eye tracking has become increasingly popular in advertising
(Andreassi, 2007). research. As a behavioural measure, eye tracking monitors visual atten-
Researchers have proposed that pupil dilation occurs in response tion processing. Technological developments and the subsequent
to pleasant or positive emotional stimuli and contraction with reduced cost of portable high‐precision infrared eye‐tracking glasses
unpleasant or negative perception of stimuli. Aversive emotional can now be used to monitor individual's eye movements in situ with
stimuli can cause a startle reaction, which activates the subcortical considerable accuracy, for example, consumers walking around in a
areas of the hypothalamus, thalamus, and reticular formation, which store or real‐life situations and natural environments outside the labo-
are associated with pupil dilation (Andreassi, 2007, p. 290). Emotional ratory (Wedel & Pieters, 2008). Eye‐tracking devices often use an
responses resulting in pupil dilation will override the normal physio- “infrared corneal reflection methodology” that has adequate spatial
logical pupillary response. As a result, even if a bright light is shone and temporal resolutions to be considered suitable for use in industry
into a dilated eye due to an emotional response, the pupil will not and academic marketing research (Wedel & Pieters, 2008, p. 124). As
constrict (Andreassi, 2007). The level of difficulty of a cognitive task a result, eye tracking is now widely used in both settings to measure
is also likely to cause changes in pupil dilation and contraction. an individual's level of attention such as an advertisement on TV, print
Pupil dilation increases according to the difficulty of a cognitive task, media, outdoor billboards, Web pages, product packaging labelling,
which is independent from emotional stimulation. However, if a branding logos, in‐store promotions, and point‐of‐purchase displays.
participant finds a solution to the cognitive task or gives up trying Leading multinational companies and producers of consumer goods
due to increasing difficulty, the eye pupil contracts involuntarily such as Unilever, P&G, and PepsiCo are frequent users of eye‐tracking
(Kahneman, 2011). measures to gauge the effectiveness of a range of marketing stimuli
248 HARRIS ET AL.

and monitor consumer attention to predict decision making and brand 6.3 | Galvanic skin response
attractiveness (Pieters & Warlop, 1999; Wedel & Pieters, 2008).
GSR measures skin conductance and autonomic nervous system
arousal in response to sensory and emotionally charged marketing stim-
uli (Ohme et al., 2009). Changes in the skin's electrical activity is known
6.2 | Heart rate as electrodermal activity. GSR involves the attachment of electrodes
that are connected to a galvanometer (LaBarbera & Tucciarone,
ECGs measure heart rate and electrical wave potential detected by
1995). This measures the sweat response of the skin and hence emo-
two electrodes, one on either side of the heart (Andreassi, 2007).
tional arousal (LaBarbera & Tucciarone, 1995). Often skin and sweat
The heart emits a group of waves called PQRST. The P wave occurs
changes can be measured by a simple band with an electrode wrapped
prior to atrial contraction; the QRS group of waves measures
around the tip of the finger, making it very easy and noninvasive to
depolarisation of electrical currents just before contraction of the ven-
administer. Measurement of skin conductance in response to advertis-
tricles, followed by ventricular repolarisation represented by the T
ing stimuli was first used during the 1970s (Ahlert et al., 2006;
wave (Andreassi, 2007). Cardiac muscle fibre and neuronal
Kroeber‐Riel, 1979). GSR has been widely used in a variety of ways
depolarisation and repolarisation occur in much the same way.
such as to pretest advertising and measure emotional responses such
A cardiac cycle is about 800 ms in length. The time intervals are
as like or dislike, marketing communications' effectiveness, copy test-
measured from the beginning of one wave form until the end of the
ing, non‐self‐report physiological responses, and emotional activation
next, for example, from the beginning of the P wave until the end of
(LaBarbera & Tucciarone, 1995). As can be seen previously in Table 1,
the Q wave form. These wave forms are referred to as the P–Q and
GSR is often used with other biometrics such as ECG, EMG in addition
Q–T intervals. The P–Q interval is approximately 160 ms, and the
to eye tracking, EEG, and fMRI. The advantage of GSR is that it mea-
Q–T interval about 300 ms (Andreassi, 2007). At the rate of 72 beats
sures the autonomic nervous system's response, which is largely uncon-
per minute, a cardiac cycle would be 830 ms in length. A new atrial
trollable by consumers (LaBarbera & Tucciarone, 1995). However, one
contraction occurs about 370 ms after the T wave ends. Heart contrac-
of the major limitations of GSR is that it cannot detect positive or neg-
tions are briefer than the release of the contraction with the ventricu-
ative valence of the level of emotional arousal (Ohme et al., 2009).
lar systole (contracting) occurring for about 300 ms and diastole
(relaxing) 500 ms (Andreassi, 2007). ECG is commonly used in con-
sumer neuroscience research in conjunction with other biometric tools
such as GSR, eye tracking, EEG, and facial EMG. ECG and EMG are
6.4 | Facial electromyography
used to record emotional valence such as arousal, approach, and with- Facial EMG measures microscopic voluntary and involuntary facial
drawal responses (Bolls, Lang, & Potter, 2001) to marketing stimuli. muscle movements by placing electrodes on the skin's surface to

TABLE 7 Examples of physiological and implicit testing studies in consumer neuroscience

Themes Tools Reference Research focus and theme Results and techniques
Review Eye tracking Wedel and Pieters (2008) Review of eye‐tracking Evaluation of eye‐tracking studies
research findings
Attention Eye tracking Pieters and Warlop Task motivation, time Filtering, visual scanning intrabrand–
(1999) pressure, and prediction of interbrand saccades fixation
brand preference durations
EMG, HR, GSR (skin Bolls et al. (2001) Radio advertising, attention, Valence, emotional responses,
conductance) memory, emotion, valence, validity of EMG and emotional
arousal, attention responses. HR negative rather than
positive radio messages receive
more attention
Unconscious emotion EEG, GSR, eye tracking, Ohme et al. (2011) Biometric measures of Preconscious, unconscious emotional
facial electromyography emotional reactions to reactions to advertising stimuli
interactive television
adverts using integrative
research approach
EEG, GSR Ohme et al. (2009) TV advertising effectiveness; Measuring impact and effectiveness
unconscious consumer of ads to an unconscious alteration
response measurements of the same advertisement
Prediction Implicit association testing, Venkatraman et al. (2015) Predicting success and Implicit measures of consumer
EEG, functional magnetic elasticities of advertising reactions. Use of functional
resonance imaging, skin stimuli, upon attention, magnetic resonance imaging, EEG,
conductance, HR, breathing, affect, memory, and eye tracking
biometrics desirability
Emotion EMG Hazlett and Hazlett Emotional consumer Facial EMG provides strong evidence
(1999) responses to TV ads of emotional response that is not
regarding attention and provided with self‐report
engagement effectiveness

Note. EEG = electroencephalography; EMG = electromyography; GSR = galvanic skin response; HR = heart rate. The tables in this article are not definitive
but aim to provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer neuroscience.
HARRIS ET AL. 249

TABLE 8 Suitability of neuroscientific tools for consumer neuroscience research

TV Film video Radio auditory Print Social Brand Static imagery, Web Decision
Neuroscience tools used ads ads music messages media strategy packaging pages making
Electroencephalography + + + + + + + + +
Magnetoencephalography + + + + + + + + +
Steady‐state topography + + + + + + + + +
Transcranial magnetic stimulation △ △ △ △ △ △ △ △ +
Functional magnetic resonance imaging − − + + − + + +
Positron emission imaging − − − − − − − − −
Functional transcranial Doppler sonography − − − − − − − − −
Galvanic skin response + + + + + + + + +
Heart rate (electrocardiogram) + + + + + + + + +
Eye tracking + + + + + + + + +
Electromyography (facial recognition) + + + + + + + + +
Implicit association testing + + + + + + + + +

Note. + = yes; − = no; △ = possible but limited number of marketing studies using this neuroscience tool. The tables in this article are not definitive but aim to
provide an overview and selection of some of the key articles and writers in the field of consumer neuroscience.

record the electrical activity of particular muscle groups (Bolls et al., brands, packaging, decision making, and brand attitudes. Table 7
2001; Ohme et al., 2011). The most commonly recorded facial muscles includes a list of representative consumer neuromarketing studies
are the corrugator supercilii (corrugator), orbicularis oculi (orbicularis), using biometric and implicit research tools.
and zygomaticus major (zygomatic). The location of these muscles
are as follows: zygomatic (cheek, above the corner of the mouth),
corrugator (brow above nose bridge), and orbicularis (lower eyelid; 7 | DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Bolls et al., 2001; Cacioppo, Petty, Losch, & Kim, 1986).
Movement of the zygomatic muscle is voluntary, associated with The new scientific field of consumer neuroscience is gradually building
smiling and positively valenced emotion, whereas the corrugator is momentum and credibility as the interface of neuroscience, consumer
associated with frowning and negatively valenced emotion (Cacioppo psychology, marketing, economics, and decision sciences. In a very
et al., 1986). Responses from the corrugator and orbicularis are short time, consumer neuroscience has established a clear research link
involuntary, and recordings of these muscle movements measure between the brain sciences and the applied business‐related types of
nonconscious emotional responses to marketing communications research. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the wide‐
(Ohme et al., 2011). Research has shown that EMG is useful in mea- ranging spectrum of neuroscience techniques and evaluates their suit-
suring positively and negatively valenced emotional responses to ability for consumer neuroscience applications. Table 8 summarises the
advertising stimuli (Bolls et al., 2001). EMG has been used to relative suitability of each neuroscientific tool for consumer neurosci-
evaluate a variety of marketing stimuli such as positive or negative ence researchers. The review evaluates the relevance and suitability
emotional valence while listening to radio advertisements (Bolls of each neuroscientific technique, providing a succinct explanation
et al., 2001), and emotion responses to advertising material (Ohme of their attributes for consumer neuroscience researchers. The preem-
et al., 2011). inent position of fMRI as the most preferred technique is
counterbalanced by the advantages of complementary and more
cost‐effective tools such as EEG, eye tracking, and implicit measures.
6.5 | Implicit association testing As the number of researchers working in consumer neuroscience
IAT and implicit testing measure conscious and unconscious response increases, there is an incremental increase in the use of new neurosci-
times to external stimuli. Conscious responses occur 500 ms after a ence tools by academic and practising commercial marketing profes-
stimulus is presented, and unconscious reactions are below the sionals. Documenting the relative advantages and disadvantages of
500‐ms threshold, which renders verbalisation impossible (Kahneman, each neuroscientific tool is essential to enhance understanding and
2003;Libet, 2004). Implicit processes may occur when individuals are improve decisions by academic and applied industry researchers.
not consciously aware of and therefore incapable of articulating a This is usually best achieved when marketing professionals and neuro-
socially acceptable response (Falk, Berkman, Mann, Harrison, & scientists collaborate, as each field has separate but interrelated areas
Lieberman, 2010; Ohme et al., 2009). IAT was first used in the 1980s of expertise. Although the division between neuroscience research
where reaction times were used to measure nonconscious processing questions and consumer neuroscience can be wide, the combination
(Maison, Greenwald, & Bruin, 2004). New sophisticated and novel of both presents many new opportunities to improve our understand-
implicit market research testing technologies are being continuously ing of commercial decision making, individual differences in brand
developed in order to identify consumers' implicit information and preferences, shopping environments, and interpersonal influences in
emotional processes such as preferences of spokes people endorsing purchasing situations.
250 HARRIS ET AL.

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