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LEARNING PACKET 1 | Quantitative Research Methods

UNIT 1

Research: Its Nature and Characteristics

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Define and discuss what research is.

b. Discuss the different ways of knowing and importance in conducting research.
c. Explain the characteristics of a scientific research.
d. Discuss the different types of research.
e. Enumerate the steps of the research process.
f. Explain the meaning of the term ‘thesis’.

1.1 Introduction

The importance of research cannot be overlooked. Almost everything involves research

even the technology that we enjoy, the food that we eat, the medicine we take, the teaching
methodologies teachers employ, are by-products of research. Research is a key to progress.
There can be no progress in almost all human endeavors without research. In government, in
education, in business and in all types of organizations, research is vital and essential. This
module presents an overview of the nature of research as an introduction to research, thus
providing the “big picture”.

1.2 The Meaning of Research

Basically, the word ‘research’ (with a hyphen) was derived from the prefix ‘re’ which
means ‘repeat’ or ‘redo’, and the root word ‘search’, which means ‘to find’ or ‘to look for’.
From this etymology of words, ‘research’ literally means ‘to repeat looking for something
which had been in existence before’. The subject matter or topic is already known but, for
some reason or another, needs to be studied again.

Assessment Question 1.1: What is your idea about the terms ‘problem’, ‘issue’, and
‘phenomenon’?

Without the hyphen the word ‘research’ means solving a problem, resolving an issue or
explaining a phenomenon in order to obtain solution or answer or explanation. In essence, it
means an original investigation, inquiry, search or quest undertaken in order to gain new
knowledge and understanding of the problem, issue or phenomenon.

Assessment Question 1.2: Examine the following activities and tell whether they can be
considered as a research (with a hyphen) or research (without the hyphen) endeavors.
1.
Find the population of each country in Africa.
2.
A research paper on the history of the Internet.

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3.
Gather evidence to determine whether gang violence is directly
related to playing violent video games.

When there are unanswered questions in mind, and one would like to search for
possible answers or explanations, conducting research is the best alternative. The solution or
answer or explanation to the problem, issue or phenomenon adds to the body of existing
knowledge to the problem, issue or phenomenon.

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is a voyage of discovery. We all possess the instinct of inquisitiveness for, when
the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain
fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and
the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown can be
termed as research.

Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of observation, comparison and
experiment. It is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem using the scientific method. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the
objective and systematic method consisting of defining and redefining problems; formulating a
hypothesis; collecting information or data; analyzing the information; reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem, issue or
phenomena; and carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.

In short, research is posing a question, collecting data about the question and then
analyzing the data to answer the question. Although there are a few more steps in research
than these three, this is the overall framework for research. When you examine a published
research articles, or conduct your own research, you will find these three steps as the core
elements.

Remember that no amount of definition can make us understand what ‘research’ is

unless we really do one. As what many would say, ‘the real test of a recipe is in the eating’.

1.3 Sources of Knowledge

Take note that the research process is not the only way of acquiring knowledge about a
problem, issue or phenomenon. The following are also alternative modes of learning or
acquiring knowledge or means of knowing.

1. Experience. Most of our initial learning is a result of our experience. Historically,

this view is called empiricism (i.e., original knowledge comes from experience). The term
empirical means “based on observation, experiment, or experience”. We learn by trial and error
through our experiences. A child learns that a dog can bark and it can also bite when
provoked. As students, we learned that studying hard results to good grades in some
instances. There is certainly some truth in the old saying that ‘‘experience is the best teacher.’’
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However, it can be dangerous to rely solely on one’s experience when trying to determine the
truth about a problem or issue or phenomena. The danger is that our experiences are limited
and our interpretations of such experiences can be influenced by what social psychologists call
‘social cognition biases’. For example, one of these biases is called belief perseverance
(Anderson, 2007). Consider the effect of evaluation that occurs every day inside the
classroom. Quizzes or exams are inherently focused on the perceived competence of students.
Given new information to learn or a novel task to master, students will acquire a sense of
competence (or lack thereof) based on experiences of success (high exam performance score) or
failure (low exam performance score) the fact that the performance may be due to the quality
of instruction more than personal ability is often overlooked. Students who received
substandard instruction and experienced subsequent failure often persist in believing in their
lack of ability. This effect is so strong that it occurs even in those rare cases where the students
are fully aware that they received inadequate training. Consequently, these students may show
a decreased of self-confidence, demonstrate decreased motivation, and never display or utilize
the true ability they possess.

One problem with experience as a source of knowledge is that it is resistant to change.

Motivated by the desire to be certain about one’s knowledge, it is a tendency to hold on
strongly to the belief, even in the face of evidence that would convince most people that the
belief is false. Our experiences can be an indispensable and important guide to life’s
difficulties, but we also need to be aware of their limits. Social cognition biases can work
together to distort the beliefs we develop from our experiences in the world which results to
self-defeating behaviors.

2. Authority or Expert Opinion. We learned that the planets move around the sun in
elliptical orbits from Kepler’s laws. As children we were influenced by and believed what our
parents told us (at least for a while), as students we generally accepted the authority of
textbooks and professors, as patients we took the pills prescribed for us by doctors and
believed they will have beneficial effects, and so on. Whenever we accept the validity of
information from a source that we judge to be expert or influential in some way, then we are
relying on authority or expert opinion as a source of our knowledge. Of course, relying on the
authority of others to establish our knowledge overlooks the fact that authorities can be wrong.
Some parents pass along harmful prejudices to their children, textbooks and professors are
sometimes wrong or their knowledge is incomplete or biased, and doctors can miss a diagnosis
or prescribe the wrong medicine. Expert opinion may hinder search for true knowledge and
understanding.

Note, however, that if you rely on expert’s opinion it is important to make sure that the
expert is an authority in the specific area under discussion and you should check to see if the
expert has a vested interest in the issue.

3. Tradition. All societies are guided by accumulated knowledge of ‘what is’ and ‘how
things are to be done’. These are knowledge based on custom, habit and repetition. Sometimes
tradition provides a useful guide to the conduct of human affairs and sometimes it does not.
Tradition tells us that something is correct because it has always been done that way. Majority
simply accept this kind of knowledge since these are the things that everybody knows. For
example, continuous crop cultivation is practiced by some farmers without considering the
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adverse long-term consequences such as soil depletion despite apparent short-term benefits.
This is due to strong adherence to customary rituals in traditional farming, such as the seeking
of blessing from a diwata or supreme being would result to continuous abundance of harvest.

Tradition can be an important source of knowledge, especially in such areas as moral

judgment and value decisions, but it does have some disadvantages. First, it is extremely
resistant to change – tenacious, holding on to a perspective without any consideration of
alternatives. Second, traditional knowledge easily confuses real knowledge (an understanding
of what is) with values (a preference for what ought to be).

In seeking real understanding of things everybody have accepted to be true by testing

the validity of that knowledge, we will be ridiculed. The existence of traditional knowledge
does not necessarily ensure that it is also useful knowledge. Tradition hinders human inquiry
or search for reliable and true knowledge. Traditions can often be strong and we have to take
them into account.

4. Logical Reasoning. We sometimes arrive at conclusions by using logic and reason.

Historically, this idea was called rationalism (i.e., original knowledge comes from thought and
reasoning). For example, given the statements (sometimes called premises):

Major Premise: Primates are capable of using language.

Minor Premise: Bozo the chimp is a primate.
Conclusion: Therefore, Bozo the chimp has the ability to use language

It is logical for us to conclude that Bozo the chimp has the ability to use language. I think
you can see the problem here - the logic is flawless, but the conclusion depends on the truth of
the first two statements. The second one might be OK and easy to verify, but the first one could
be subject to considerable debate, depending, among other things, on how language is defined.
Psycholinguists have been arguing about the issue for years (Goodwin, 2010). The key point is
that the value of a logically drawn conclusion depends on the truth of the premises, and it takes
more than logic to determine whether the premises have merit.

[Link] Reasoning. This is reasoning from the particular to the general. By

observing things around us, we make inferences. A young child who has seen only black rats
generalizes that all rats are black. He may even think of large, black hairy animals as large rats.
He forms generalizations from particular instances or examples.

[Link] reasoning. This is the opposite of inductive reasoning. It is the process

of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises or observations. For example, a child
knows that fire is hot and concludes that a lighted candle or lighted match stick are also hot.

5. Common sense. The accumulation of knowledge from tradition and experience

often blends to form what people call ‘common sense’: practical judgments based on the
experiences, wisdoms, and prejudices of people. People with common sense are presumed to
be able to make sound decisions even though they lack any specialized training and training.

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Consider the following contradictory examples. Common sense will tell us persons
with similar interests will likely associate with one another. When we see a boy who indulges
in drugs with others who do the same, we may say that “birds of the same feather flock
together”. Then we see a handsome man intimately involved with not so attractive lady, and
we say “opposite attract”.

It is as if common sense explains everything even when the explanations contradict one
another. Common sense can be valuable and accurate, which is not surprising because we
need sound information as a basis for interacting with others and functioning in society.
However, common sense does not involve rigorous and systematics attempt to distinguish
reality from fiction. As a basis of human service practice, knowledge should be based on the
rigorous and systematic methods used in research as means of acquiring knowledge.

Assessment Question 1.3 : Cite other sources of knowledge besides those that were discussed
above.

6. The Scientific Approach. Science is also an approach for the generation of

knowledge. It relies on a mixture of empiricism (i.e., the collection of data) and rationalism (i.e.,
the use of reasoning and theory construction and testing). This approach employs the scientific
method. The scientific method is a series of steps that scientists and researchers use to answer
questions and solve problems in order to gain knowledge.

1.4 The Scientific Method

In executing the different steps in the scientific method requires several science process
skills. In other words, the scientific method is just the application of the different science
process skills. The science process skills are grouped into two categories – basic science
process skills and integrated science process skills. The basic science process skills serve as
the foundation of the scientific method while the integrated science process skills are the
combinations of the different basic science process skills which are the most complex skills of
the scientific method.

1.4.1 The Basic Skills

There are six (6) basic science process skills: observing, communicating, classifying,
measuring, inferring, and predicting.

1. Observing – is the process of collecting information or data about an event’s or

object’s characteristics, attributes, properties, similarities, differences and other identification
features using the 5 senses with or without the aid of an instrument. Collecting information or
data using the five (5) senses alone is considered as a “qualitative observation” while the aid of
instruments are considered “quantitative observations.”

Examples: A. The pencil has a yellow color. B. The pencil is 5 inches long.

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Example “A” is a “qualitative observation” while example B is a “quantitative observation.” A

qualitative observation is NOT AN EXACT description of the characteristic of the pencil since
it will create debate – how yellow it is? Light yellow? Dark yellow? How light or how dark is
the yellow color? On the other hand, example “B” is a quantitative observation which is
EXACT and will not create debate among observers. The observation that the pencil is five (5)
inches long is five inches. It is not four (4) inches or six (6) inches.

2. Classifying – is the process of grouping and ordering objects according to a certain

characteristic.

Example: A child placing objects of different shapes or color into one group.

3. Measuring – is the process of “comparing” of an unknown physical quantity to be

measured with a standard physical quantity (instrument or tool) of the same unit.

Example: Using a meter stick to measure the length of a block of wood in centimeters.

If you want to determine the length (unknown physical quantity) of a block of wood, you use a
ruler or meter stick (instrument) since the units of the two quantities being compared are the
same like inch or centimeter as illustrated below. You cannot use a weighing balance since the
unit of a weighing balance is not in inch or centimeter.

So, the length of the block of wood is 8.6 times of an inch or 8.6 inches.

4. Communicating – it refers to the use of multimedia, written, graphs, images, action,

objects or event or other means to share observation or findings.

Example 1: Textual communication – “Putting equal amount of fertilizer every end of the week
will cause an increase of a plant growth in terms of height”.

Example 2: Graphical communication

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“The graph is telling us as we add more fertilizer, the height of the increases.”

5. Inferring – this involves forming ideas to explain observations about an object or

event based on previously gathered data or information.

Example: Saying that the person who used a pencil made a lot of mistakes because the eraser
was well worn.

Assessment Question 1.4: Which of the following statements could be considered as an

interpretation rather than an observation?
A. Nobody answers the ringing of the doorbell.
B. The windows of the house are all closed.
C. Nobody is in the house.
D. No sound is heard from inside the house.

6. Predicting – making a guess or stating the outcome of a future event based on a

pattern of collected evidence.

Example: Saying something about the height of a plant at the fifth week based on a graph of
the plant’s growth in height on the amount of fertilizer added every week.

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The graph shows a linear relationship between height of the plant and the amount of
fertilizer per week – 1st week, 3 grams; 2nd week, another 3 grams for a total of 6 grams added;
and so on and so forth. However, the available data is only around 10.5 grams (end of red
slanting line). Now, you can predict the height of the plant on the fifth week (total of 15 grams
had been added) by extrapolation. This is done by extending the straight line. From the 15
grams on the x-axis, draw a line parallel to the y-axis until it hits the slanting line, draw a
straight line parallel to the x-axis until it hits the y-axis, then you read the value of the height.

Assessment Question 1.5: To say an insect released a dark, sticky liquid from its mouth is
a/an ___________________.
A. observation. B. communication. C. inference. D. prediction.

1.4.2 The Integrated Skills

As mentioned above, the integrated science process skills are the combinations of the
different basic science process skills.

1. Formulating a Hypothesis - stating an expected outcome of an observation or

making a prediction (educated guess) based on evidence of prior observation, research and
investigations.

Example: The greater the amount of fertilizer added to the soil, the greater the bean growth.

A hypothesis is a temporary explanation or proposed prediction of an observation which needs

to be verified or tested by performing an experiment.

2. Controlling variables - being able to identify variables that can affect an

experimental outcome, keeping most constant while manipulating only the independent
variable. (A variable is something that vary in value or characteristics.)

Example: You want to determine the effect of fertilizer on the growth of a plant. You know
aside from fertilizer, water, and sunlight also affect the growth of a plant. To determine
the effect of fertilizer then you have to control these variables.

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Assessment
Question1.6: Three strings are hung
from a bar. String #1 and #3 are of equal
length. String #2 is longer. Charlie attaches
-unitaweight
5 at the end of string #2
and at the end of string #3. -unit
A 10 weight is attached at the end of string #1.
Each string with a weight can be swung.

Charlie wants to find out if the length of the string has an effect on the amount of time it
takes the string to swing back and forth.
Which string and weight would he use for his
experiment and provide explanation?
a) string #1 and #2
b) string #1 and #3
c) string #2 and3#
d) string #1, #2 and #3
e) string #2 only

3. Defining operationally - stating how to measure a variable or specific term to

describe
what is happening in an investigation based on observable characteristics.

Example: Stating that bean growth will be measured in centimeters per week means you are
defining operationally “bean growth”.

4. Interpreting data - organizing data collected from an investigation, analyzing the

data and drawing conclusions from it.

Example: Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and forming a
conclusion which relates trends in the data to variables.

5. Experimenting - carrying out an investigation to verify a question or hypothesis,

identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining those variables, designing a "fair"
procedure in collecting data, analyzing the data and interpreting the results of the analysis.

Example: The entire process of conducting the effect of fertilizer on the growth of bean plants.

As you can see from the different figures below, there is no single scientific method.
The scientific method is the imaginative, logical, objective, systematic and creative application

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of the different science process skills in solving a problem, resolving an issue or explaining a
phenomenon.

• Another form of the scientific method.

There are many forms of the scientific method which depend on the nature of the
specific problem under study and the area of specialization of the investigator. The sequence
or arrangement in the application of the different process skills is not uniform and vary from
one discipline to another discipline.

The goal of the scientific method is to come up with the most objective and reliable
answers and solutions to problems, issues or phenomenon. Like the scientific method,
research is not some magical process, but actually an everyday activity in which systematic
steps are followed to answer questions. The scientific method, thus, is a tool that researchers
just like what scientists employ to lessen the inherent bias of their work and simultaneously

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improve their objectivity and efficiency. It is not a fix or rigid procedure like a recipe. Rather it
is a set of skills that has appeared in many different formulations to increase the likelihood of
success of researchers. Scientists and researchers may use all of the steps or just some of the
steps of the scientific method. They may even repeat some of the steps. How the different
science skills are applied in each step will depend on the nature of the problem.

For example, the following science process skills describe the scientific method by which
scientists and researchers employ to find answers to their own questions:

• They observe natural process until they think they see a pattern in the events they are
observing.
• They define questions to investigate based on their observations. These questions often
arise from findings of earlier research or even research done by other scientists (and
citizen scientists).
• They develop hypotheses (testable guesses) to try to answer their questions.
• They systematically collect and then analyze information (data) to test the hypotheses.
• They look at the results, then come to conclusions about whether their hypotheses are
correct (supported or not supported). Often, they ask even more questions based on
what they have observed.

The concept map below illustrates another form of the scientific method. Please take
note that the scientific method is a dynamic process just like the research process - involving
discovery and learning as you go.

Concept Map of the Scientific Method

Regardless of how the steps are sequenced, all of them will require the different science
process skills.

Engaging in research must be done as objectively as possible but how can a research
study be free from human biases? By employing the scientific method or science process skills.

The scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by

the demands of logic and objective procedure. Accordingly, scientific method implies an
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objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a
method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein
the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal
consistency.

However, be reminded that the scientific method is not a ‘perfect’ process of knowing
everything. It has some limitations.

Assessment Question 1.7: Read pages 353-354 of the book Philosophy: A Text with
Readings by Vincent Barry available at the college library of Samar State University.
Identify the limitations of science.

True knowledge or understanding must be reliable, valid, empirical, comprehensive and

arrived at with rigor, objectively and systematically unlike the common ways of knowing like
experiential learning, authority, tradition, logical reasoning or common sense which are
subjective. When we rely exclusively on non-scientific ways to knowing, the resulting
knowledge is susceptible to error and may be of limited value to understanding the world
beyond our immediate experience.

However, experience, authority, tradition, logical reasoning and common sense are very
effective when used together as integral components of the scientific method.

1.4 Importance of Research

According to Creswell (2012), research is important for the following reasons:

1. Research adds to existing knowledge.

How can research specifically add to the knowledge base and existing literature? A
research report might provide a study that has not been conducted and thereby fill a void in
existing knowledge. It can also provide additional results to confirm or disconfirm results of
prior studies. It can help add to the literature about practices that work or advance better
practices that educators might try in their educational setting.

Suppose a research study is conducted on how elementary school children learn social
skills and past research has not examined this topic, the research study addresses a gap in
knowledge. If the study explores how Filipino children use social skills on their way home
from school, the study might replicate past studies but would test results with new participants
at a different research site. If the study examines how children use social skills when at play,
not on the school grounds, but on their way home from school, the study would contribute to
knowledge by expanding our understanding of the topic. If the study examines female
children on the way home from school, the study would add female voices seldom heard in
research.

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No matter how experienced or knowledge a person is, new problems continue to arise.
Research plays a vital role in our understanding of problems because researchers study
questions to which the answers are previously unknown. By reading what researchers have
learned, you add to your own knowledge about a topic.

Assessment Question 1.8: Suppose, for example, a thesis reports that cooperative learning

was not as effective as whole-class learning in third-grade mathematics and this

finding does not negate all the previous studies that found cooperative learning

was superior. What is the implication of this finding to researchers?

2. Research improves practice.

Research is also important because it suggests improvements in one’s professional

practice. Armed with research results, teachers and other educators become more effective
professionals. This effectiveness translates into better learning for students. But before research
results can impact teacher training or any other aspect of education, individuals in educational
settings need to be aware of results from investigations, to know how to read research studies,
to locate useful conclusions from them, and to apply the findings to their own unique
situations.

Research may help professionals improve their practices on the job. Research offers
practicing educators new ideas to consider as they go about their jobs. From reading research
studies, educators can learn about new practices that have been tried in other settings or
situations.

3. Research informs policy debates.

In addition to helping professionals become better practitioners, research also provides

information to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics. Policy makers
may range from parents and local government officials to school administrators, and they
discuss and take positions on educational issues important to these constituents. For these
individuals, research offers results that can help them weigh various perspectives. When policy
makers read research on issues, they are informed about current debates and stances taken by
other public officials.

4. Research develops scientific thinking.

On the personal level, research can help develop the kinds of skills that employers look
for in bachelor’s level job applicants. By the time you have completed this course, for example,

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you should be better at critical and analytical thinking, precise writing, and logical argument.
In addition, you will know how to analyze, summarize, interpret empirical data and present
the results of your research in a clear and organized fashion. Finally, a course in research
introduces you to a particular type of thinking – scientific thinking.

1.5 Characteristics of Scientific Research

Authorities in the field of research defined or described research as follows:

• Research is the careful, critical or unbiased, disciplined investigation or inquiry of a

problem based insofar as possible, upon demonstrable facts and involving refined
distinctions, interpretations, and usually some generalizations directed towards the
clarification or resolution of a problem.
• It is a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions.
• To search again, to take another more careful look, to find out more.
• Research refers to a systematic collection and analysis of data to illuminate, describe or
explain new facts and relationship. In its broadest sense is an attempt to find solutions
to problems. It is also a collection of data in a controlled situation for purposes of
prediction or explanation.
• Is a systematic quest for undiscovered truth.
• Research is an organized search for knowledge or answers to questions.
• Research is a way of dealing with ideas for purposes of clarifying, verifying and
confirming data.
• It is a process of obtaining techniques, where truth, accuracy, validity, reliability and
other criteria can be ascertained.
• Research is a scientific study or investigation that is pursued to discover facts, revise
theories or laws based on new facts and the practical application of these.
• Research is diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to validate and refine
knowledge and generate new knowledge.

Assessment Question 1.9: From the above definitions or descriptions of what research is,
list

down the characteristics of scientific research.

Based on the above definitions or descriptions, research has several characteristics.

Systematic. It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a researcher has to do

in solving a problem. In other words, it follows an orderly and sequential procedure that leads
to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem or whatever is aimed to be discovered.

Empirical. It is not based on guesswork. This is because information or data have to be

gathered by the researcher through actual observation before making any conclusion or
proposing any solution to an identified difficulty or problem. In other words, all findings and
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conclusions are logically based on actual observations and no effort is made to alter the result
of the research. As such, the findings are capable of being verified or disproved by
observation, experiment, or experience.

Objective. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the
same manner by all observers or researchers. Generalizations are drawn by the researcher
upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from the real life experiences and
observations.

Comprehensive. If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon or

problem, he/she has to examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before making a
generalization.

Critical. This means the procedures employed by the researcher must be able to
withstand critical scrutiny by other researchers. Data should be analyzed critically so that
there is no error in the interpretation.

Rigorous. Procedures to be followed in solving a problem should be relevant,

appropriate, justified and strictly observed.
Valid. Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these are based on actual
findings.

Reliable. This concerns the replicability and consistency of the methods, conditions,
and results. In other words, a research must be verifiable or can be replicated so that other
researchers can check on the correctness of its results based on the methods and procedures
employed by the researcher.

Parsimony. More simple explanations or results are preferred than complicated ones.
It is assumed that the simpler explanation is more likely to be correct. More complex
explanations should be developed only after simpler explanations have failed to be supported
by research studies.

Assessment Question 1.10: Give a reason why scientific method is of value than the other ways
of knowing.

Assessment Question 1.11: How is research related to the scientific method?

1.6 Classification of Research

This topic is a gray area – research textbook authors have no consensus how to
categorize research types.

One way of classifying research studies is according to the information or data collected
– quantitative research, qualitative research and mixed-method research.
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Quantitative research describes phenomena in numbers and measures instead of words

while qualitative research is a research that describes the phenomena in words or images
instead of numbers or measures. Additional criteria that differentiate the two types of
research are summarized in Table 1.

The decision of the researcher as to which type of research to follow depends on two
factors: the state of knowledge on a particular research problem and the researcher’s position
regarding the nature of human social behavior.

When knowledge is sketchy or when there is little theoretical understanding about the
problem, it may be impossible to develop precise hypotheses or operational definitions. In this
case, qualitative research is more appropriate because it can be more exploratory in nature.
When research is very descriptive resulting to the formulation of hypotheses; when there is
enough previous research on the problem where concepts, variables and hypotheses can be
stated precisely; and when it is possible to develop quantifiable operational definitions then
quantitative research is suited.

Moreover, it should be borne in mind that the terms “qualitative” and “quantitative” is
not a dichotomy but a qualitative-quantitative continuum.

When qualitative research is combined with quantitative research, this time it is called
mixed-method research.

Assessment Question 1.12: If we will view quantitative research and qualitative in terms of
statistics, what would be the main difference between the two?

Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Purpose To understand and interpret To test hypotheses, look at cause
social interactions. and effect, and make predictions.
Group studied Smaller and non- Larger and randomly selected.
randomly selected.
Variables Study of the whole, Specific variables studied.
not variables.
Type of data Words, images, or objects. Numbers and statistics.
collected
Form of data Qualitative data such Quantitative data based on
collected openended responses, precise measurements using
interviews, participant structured and validated data-
observations, field notes, and collection instru-ments.
reflections.
Type of data analysis Identify patterns, Identify statistical relationships.
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features, themes
Objectivity and Subjectivity is expected. Objectivity is critical.
subjectivity
Role of researcher Researcher and their biases may Researcher and their biases are
be known to participants in the not known to participants in the
study, and participant study, and participants
characteristics may be known to characteristics are deliberately
the researcher. hidden from the researcher
(double blind studies).
Results Particular or specialized findings Generalizable findings that can be
that is less generalizable. applied to other populations.
Scientific method Exploratory or bottom-up: the Confirmatory or top-down: the
researcher generates a new researcher tests the hypothesis
hypothesis and theory from the and theory with the data
data collected. collected.
View of human Dynamic, situational, social and Regular and predictable.
behavior personal.
Most common Explore, discover, and construct. Describe, explain, and predict.
research objectives
Focus Wide-angle lens: examines the Narrow-angle lens: tests a specific
breadth and depth of hypothesis.
phenomena.
Nature of Study behavior in a natural Study behavior under controlled
observation environment. conditions; isolate causal effects.
Nature of reality Multiple realities; subjective. Single-reality; objective
Final report Narrative report with contextual Statistical report with
description and direct correlations, comparisons of
quotations from research means, and statistical significance
participants. of findings.

Table 1. Quantitative research versus Qualitative research

The following research types are under the quantitative method. The classification is
not only based on the type of data collected but also according to its objective in conducting the
research.

1. Descriptive research. This type of research endeavors to describe the characteristics

systematically, factually, accurately and objectively of a condition, situation, event, problem
or phenomenon that occurs in the present. It seeks to describe “what is”. Attributes or
characteristics or variables are studied as they exist in the situation, usually a natural
situation. Its purpose is to describe the status quo.

For example, a survey of the physical condition of school buildings in order to establish
a descriptive profile of the facilities that exist in a typical school.
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2. Correlational research. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe or search for
relationship between two or more factors or attributes or characteristics or variables through
the use of various measures of statistical association.

An investigation of the relationship between teachers’ satisfaction with their job and
various factors describing the provision and quality of teacher housing, salaries, leave
entitlements, and the availability of classroom supplies.

3. Explanatory research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify how some
phenomenon works or why it operates; or how and why a relationship exists between two
or more aspects of a situation, event, phenomenon, attributes, characteristics or variables.

Questions like why job stress contributes to burnout or why morale can lead to low
productivity among the employees are problems which can be investigated systematically
through the explanatory research design.

4. Exploratory research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is after
probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem. Feasibility and
pilot studies fall under this type of research.

When a researcher is after determining the incidence of lung cancer and cigarette
smoking in a certain locality by gathering preliminary information about persons with lung
cancer and those that smoke or not.

5. Predictive research. This is an attempt to determine which of a number of variables are

most highly related to the criterion variable. If two variables are highly related, scores on
one variable can be used to predict scores on the other variable.

High school grades, for example, can be used to predict college grades, or scores on a
teacher certification exam can be used to predict principals’ evaluation of teachers’ classroom
performance. The variable used to predict (e.g., high school grades or certification exam) is
called the predictor, and the variable that is predicted (e.g., college grades or principals’
evaluations) is a complex variable called the criterion.

6. Ex-post Facto or Causal-Comparative research. Research is of this type when the

investigator delves on analyzing the possible effect of a factor, attribute, characteristic or
variable which cannot be manipulated and controlled by searching back through available
data in order to try to identify plausible causal relationships.

A biology student who is interested in determining the incidence of lung cancer among
heavy smokers is a situation where this type of research is appropriate to employ.

7. Experimental research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into the cause of an
effect by exposing one or more groups to one or more treatments or conditions. By
treatment, one attribute, characteristic or variable is manipulated or changed (called

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independent) while the other attribute, characteristic or variable is not changed (called
dependent).

When a mathematics professor is after determining the effectiveness of a learning

module in raising the performance of his/her students, he/she is actually engaging in
experimental research. One group is exposed to modular instruction while another group of
students is exposed to traditional lecture, then the same achievement test is given to both
groups at the end of the experiment.

Assessment Question 1.13: Using lung cancer and cigarette smoking, differentiate ‘ex-post
facto research’ and ‘experimental research’.

On the other hand, qualitative research is categorized as:

1. Historical research. In historical research, the researcher attempts to reconstruct the

part objectively and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use
of data taken from the past.

A study that documents the evolution of teacher training programs since the turn of
the century, with the aim of explaining the historical origins of the content and processes of
current programs.

2. Ethnographic research. Usually consists of a description of events that occur within

the life of a group – with particular reference to the interaction of individuals in the context of
the socio-cultural norms, rituals, and beliefs shared by the group. The researcher generally
participates in some part of the normal life of the group and uses what he or she learns from
this participation to understand the interactions between group members.

To determine the daily tasks and interactions encountered by a school principal using
observations gathered by a researcher who disguises as a newly hired employee in order to
become fully involved in the daily life of the school.

The above types of qualitative research are not exhaustive. There are still other types
such as case study, narrative research, phenomenological research and grounded theory
(Corbin and Strauss, 2008).

For example, some qualitative researchers focus on the exploration of phenomena that
occur within a bounded system like a person, event, program, life cycle (case study); some
derive theory using multiple steps of data collection and interpretation that link actions of
participants to general social science theories or work inductively to arrive at a theory that
explains a particular phenomenon (grounded theory); some ask about the meaning of this
experience for these participants (phenomenology); and some describe the lives of individuals
(narrative).

On the basis of who undertakes research, research can either be academic research or
research project.
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Academic research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the requirements for

the conferment of an academic title or degree. Undergraduate theses, master’s theses,
feasibility studies, and doctoral dissertations fall under this type of research. On the other
hand, a research project is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of
individuals as part of their professional work or assignment.

Based on the final use or application of research results, research can either be basic or
theoretical or applied or practical. Basic or theoretical research is one done for the purpose of
formulating a theory, principle, or law with no intended application of results. Meaning, it is
done for the purpose of extending knowledge. Research in this case is undertaken for the
purpose of gaining knowledge for knowledge’s sake. Conversely, applied or practical
research is focused on answering real-world, practical questions to provide relatively
immediate solutions. Topics for applied research are often driven by current problems in
education and by policymakers’ concerns. It is also an inquiry to test or evaluate a theory or
knowledge arrived at, in the solution of a problem or for useful ends.

Furthermore, three kinds of research fall into applied or practical research. What
distinguishes these three types of practical research from others is not “how” the research is
done, but “why”. These are action research, evaluation research and research and
development.

Action Research. This type of research deals on solving practitioner’s local problems
(Koshy, 2005). It is generally conducted by the practitioners after they have learned about the
methods of research and research concepts. Action research focuses on the solution of day-
today problems at the local level. There is little concern about generalizing the results of action
research to other educational settings. Often, only small, accessible population is used, such as
a chemistry class in a single high school.

It is important to understand that action research is also a state of mind; for example,
teachers who are action researchers are constantly observing their students for patterns and
thinking about ways to improve instruction, classroom management, and so forth.

Evaluation or Evaluative Research. When interventions and social or educational

programs aimed at improving various conditions are implemented, evaluation research is
often carried out to determine how well the programs work in real-world settings and to show
how they might be improved. Evaluation results aid in decision making in a specific situation
as with applied research. Evaluation requires evaluators to make value judgments about
evaluation objects (e.g., Program XYZ is a good program, and it should be continued; Program
ABC is a bad program, and it should be discontinued). An evaluation object (also called the
evaluand) is the thing being evaluated: a program, a person, or a product. An educational
program might be an afterschool program for students with behavioral problems or a new
curriculum at school. A product might be a new textbook or a new piece of equipment that a
school is considering purchasing.

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Evaluation traditionally is subdivided into two types according to the purpose of the
evaluation. When the primary purpose of an evaluation is to lead to judgments about how a
program can be improved, it is called a formative evaluation. Formative evaluation
information helps program developers and support staff design, implement, and improve their
program so that it works well. When the primary purpose of an evaluation is to lead to
judgments about whether a program is effective and whether it should be continued, it is
called a summative evaluation.

Summative evaluation information is important for policymakers and others who

commission programs when they make funding decisions and when they have to make choices
about which competing programs will be supported and which will be eliminated.
It is currently popular to divide evaluation into five areas or types, each of which is based on a
fundamental evaluation question:

1. Needs assessment: Is there a need for this type of program?

2. Theory assessment: Is this program conceptualized in a way that it should work?
3. Implementation assessment: Was this program implemented properly and according
to the program plan?
4. Impact assessment: Did this program have an impact on its intended targets?
5. Efficiency assessment: Is this program cost-effective?

Research and Development differs from the above types of research in that, rather than
bringing new information to light, it focuses on the interaction between research and the
production and evaluation of a new product. This type of research can be ‘formative’ (by
collecting evaluative information about the product while it is being developed with the aim of
using such information to modify and improve the development process). For example, an
investigation of teachers’ reactions to the various drafts and redrafts of a new mathematics
teaching kit, with the information gathered at each stage being used to improve each stage of
the drafting process.

Alternatively, it can be ‘summative’ (by evaluating the worth of the final product,
especially in comparison to some other competing product). For example, a comparison of the
mathematics achievement of students exposed to a new mathematics teaching kit in
comparison with students exposed to the established mathematics curriculum.

With reference to the field of knowledge where the problem being studied is associated
with, research may be classified as social, educational, psychological or medical. Only
educational research will be discussed briefly.

Educational Research. It is a systematic investigation, involving the collection of information

or data, to solve an educational problem or contribute to our knowledge about an educational
theory or practice (Gay, Mills, and Airasian, 2012). It is primarily concerned with improving
the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry related to education and, by
promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results. In short, it is the
cleansing of the educational process.

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The following are some characteristics of educational research.

• It is highly purposeful.
• It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers as well.
• It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of investigation.
• It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at statistical
inferences.
• It discovers new facts in new perspective. i. e. It generates new knowledge.
• It is based on some philosophic theory.
• It depends on the researcher’s ability, ingenuity and experience for its interpretation
and conclusions.
• It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational problem.
• It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in some cases.
• It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education as the laboratory for
conducting researches.

Another way of categorizing research is in terms of time.

1. Cross-sectional research, in which data are collected at one point in

time, often in order to make comparisons across different types of respondents or
participants.

2. Prospective or longitudinal research, in which data are collected on

multiple occasions starting with the present and going into the future for
comparisons across time. Data are sometimes collected on different groups over time
in order to determine subsequent differences on some other variable. Under this
category, we have panel study and trend study. In panel study, a group of same
people are studied at different points in time while trend study studies a group of
different people at different points in time. Public opinion polling and research on
political attitudes are examples of trend studies.

3. Retrospective research, in which the researcher looks back in time

using existing or available data to explain or explore an existing occurrence. This
backwards examination may be an attempt to find potential explanations for current
group differences.

The above categories are answers to the question: Were the data collected at a single
time point, across some time span into the future, or were already existing data explored? You
could think of them as representing the past (retrospective), present (cross-sectional), and
future (longitudinal) with respect to timing of data collection.

Still another type of research is meta-analysis. The purpose of meta-analysis is to

summarize, integrate, and interpret an empirical body of research or studies in which the
outcomes are quantitative (DePoy and Gitlin, 2011). In meta-analysis the findings of more
than one study can be combined and averaged. Also, it can be used only with studies using
similar constructs or reporting specific statistical analyses (e.g., inferential statistics) that can be
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meaningfully compared. The strength of meta-analysis lies in its ability to synthesize a body of
research that focuses on a specific topic (e.g., treatment for stroke) and to derive interpretations
of the degree of effect of similar treatments. Meta-analysis provides a systematic and
structured way of summarizing and analyzing research findings from more than one study in a
specified area of inquiry. It can be applied to an area of inquiry with few studies or with many
studies.

Finally, it should be noted from the discussions above that the different classification of
research is not absolute. Various authors have different ways of classifying research.

1.7 The Research Process

As mentioned earlier, research is generally a process of collecting and analyzing data to

obtain solutions or answers to a problem, issue or phenomenon just like the scientific method.
Just like the scientific method, the research process is not a set fixed steps or actions and this is
evident by the different formulations made by authors of research textbooks. Some authors
would divide the research process into phases, stages or series of steps. How the research
process is formulated will depend on the specific type of research.

The following is another formulation of the research process.

1. Identify the problem area.

2. Survey the literature relating to it.
3. Define the actual problem to clear specific terms.
4. Define concepts and variables.
5. Formulate testable hypotheses.
6. Formulate the conceptual framework or the research paradigm.
7. Define the scope and delimitations of the research.
8. Construct the research design.
9. Identify the research subjects and the sampling techniques.
10. Specify the instruments and data collection procedures.
11. Select the data analysis methodology.
12. Execute the research plan.
13. Evaluate the results and draw conclusions.
14. State the recommendations.
15. Report the results.

As enumerated above, the research process appears as sequential in nature. To a certain

extent this is fine. However, the research process is not rigid or completely structured like the
scientific method. Regardless of the area or choice of methodology, the research process
involves similar activities which are expressions of the science process skills.

Activities do overlap to some degree and at times two or more activities can be in
process simultaneously. For example, in ethnographic research, hypothesis formulation often
takes place throughout the study, from data collection onward. In many studies, preliminary
analysis begins while data collection is still in process. In some instances, step 2 is ahead than
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step 1. This happens when a researcher is searching for a possible research problem by
surveying the literature. Nevertheless, it is helpful to impose some order on the various
activities.

Research is a scientific way of discovering possible answers to existing problems.

Another characteristic of research is that as one tries to find solutions to the problem, in the
process, some questions arise, thus, making research a continuous process as shown in the
Figure 2 below. Once a problem or issue has been solved new ones come.

The last phase in any research activity is communication. You write to report the results
of your research – bound thesis or research article. You do not write to persuade, or to
entertain, or to express personal feelings, but to inform (Glatthorn, 1998). That informing
function indicates that the primary quality of the writing is clarity, not creativity.

Your audiences are also several. You write for yourself, of course, and you must be satisfied
with what you have written. When you have finished the thesis, you should feel a sense of
pride in what you have accomplished.

You write for your committee, and their predilections and idiosyncrasies must be
recognized and responded to. In a way they are the most important audience, because they
will scrutinize your thesis most carefully. Although others may give it only a cursory look, the
committee will examine it page by page.

You write for the faculty as a whole, and institutional standards must be met. The
faculty will award you the degree, and the requirements they have set for the thesis’ form and
content should be respected, even if they may seem unreasonable to you.

Finally, of course, you write for other members of your profession. Your thesis will
become a small part of a complex information network; your findings and conclusions will be
read by other students and researchers in the field.

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Assessment Question 1.14: Explain why researchers use the word ‘evidence’ instead of

‘proof’ (like in logic and math) when they make a write up of the results of their
research in journal articles?

1.8 The Thesis

A thesis can be one of the most rewarding, productive experiences of an undergraduate

or graduate student’s career. As an educational enterprise it is fundamentally different from
the normal classroom experience. It is an opportunity for students to be creative, to bring
together and integrate skills they have acquired to make a real professional contribution. The
thesis is a means for students to demonstrate both to themselves and the world that they have
achieved a respectable level of professional maturity.

A thesis is often scary. No doubt about it. Even graduate students are initially anxious
about how they will manage to complete such a large and demanding venture, generally much
larger and more challenging than anything they have previously done academically. Moreover,
many naturally suffer from moments of despair along the way as things do not go according to
plan. This is natural too. But with the proper guidance of a qualified thesis advisor, much of
the possible pain of doing a thesis can be avoided.

The thesis has an ancient history, going back to the medieval university, where it was
required to those who wanted to teach.

The word thesis comes from the Greek word (θέσις) which means position or
intellectual proposition that one wishes to prove using arguments. The intellectual
proposition is known as the thesis of the argument.

According to Glatthorn (1998), a thesis is “a proposition that a person advances and

offers to maintain by argument.” This definition has three key elements.

1. A thesis is a proposition: it advances an idea, a hypothesis or a recommendation.

2. A thesis offers an argument: it presents a rationale for accepting the proposition made,
rather than simply asserting a point of view.
3. The argument of the thesis should be maintained: it should be made convincingly by
appropriate logic and sufficient evidence.

An alternate definition of a thesis is provided by suggesting what is not a thesis (de

Neufville and Field, 2010). A chronology or other description of a situation is not by itself a
thesis (nor is it good history). A straight analysis, for example a large statistical study, is also
not a thesis. Nor is an essay expressing a point of view or an opinion. Each of these materials
can, of course, be important parts of a thesis if properly used to advance and defend an

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argument. In short, a good thesis makes a point. It suggests an answer to a problem, issue or
phenomenon. It attempts to validate that answer.

On the other hand, the California State University Education Code (Title V, Section
40510, p. 473) defines ‘thesis’ as

. . . a written product of a systematic study of a significant problem. It identifies the problem,

states the major assumptions, explains the significance of the undertaking, sets forth the
sources for and methods of gathering information, analyzes the data, and offers a conclusion or
recommendation. The finished product evidences originality, critical and independent
thinking, appropriate organization and format, and thorough documentation.
A thesis then is a scholarly paper and an original contribution to a body knowledge
resulting from the systematic study of a significant problem, phenomenon or issue.

Assessment Question 1.15: How is the term ‘thesis’ related to the term ‘research’?

The length of the thesis will vary depending on the specific degree. Thesis submitted as
part of the requirement for an undergraduate degree is usually much shorter than those
submitted as part of a graduate degree. Length may be calculated in number of words,
number of pages, or, when the thesis is written in a character-based language (such as Chinese
or Japanese), number of characters.

In certain fields of study such as fine arts or performing arts, the thesis may be in a form
of an artistic performance, a written work of music, or of fiction, or a painting or other artistic
production.

As a student, the main personal purpose in undertaking the thesis, obviously, is to earn the
degree. However, you should view the thesis as something more than an unpleasant
requirement. You should see it as a way of learning. In the struggle to write the thesis, you
will learn much about yourself and about the topic you have researched. Writing is a way of
knowing and thinking - the process of systematizing knowledge and finding a form to express
that knowledge becomes a means of discovering meaning or, as several writers have put it, ”I
do not know what I know until I try to write it“. Such learning will foster your personal and
professional growth as future educator.

Your thesis will be a better one if you take seriously the expectation that you will make a
contribution to scholarly knowledge. Even though few theses report earthshaking discoveries,
the good ones add incrementally to the store of professional knowledge. Winning theses or
dissertations extend knowledge, even if the topic has often been studied.

The submission of the thesis represents the completion of the final requirement for the
degree being sought. This institutional purpose is to ensure that the degree holder has made a
contribution to the field – and also to uphold an honored academic tradition. The thesis now is
perceived by the university as a demonstration of the candidate’s fitness to conduct and
publish research – and to enter their scholarly ranks.

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The aims therefore of the thesis is to:

• put into practice theories and concepts learned on the program;

• provide an opportunity to study a particular topic in depth;
• show evidence of independent investigation;
• combine relevant theories and suggest alternatives;
• enable interaction with practitioners (where appropriate to the chosen topic);  show
evidence of ability to plan and manage a project within deadlines.

Assessment Question 1.16: Contrast and compare the following terms: thesis, dissertation

1.9 Assignment

1. The last phase in any research activity is called “communicative purpose”.

Communicative purpose means _______________.
A. to improve one’s writing ability.
B. to comply for degree requirement.
C. to report the result of the research.
D. to satisfy one’s curiosity.

2. The ability to use existing facts to derive new information is known as _____________.
A. sensory experience B. expert opinion.
C. logic D. scientific method.

3. Endeavors to explain, predict, and/or control phenomena are the goal of ___________. A.
tradition. B. inductive logic. inductive logic.
C. deductive logic. D. the scientific method.

4. Ms. Casillas has been coordinating the Halloween Festival at her school for the last several
years. She wants to be sure the students and parents enjoy the festival again this year. On
which source is she LEAST likely to rely when making decisions about what to do?
A. Tradition B. Personal experience
C. Expert opinion D. Research

5. The scientific method is preferred over other ways of knowing because it is more
________. A. reliable. B. systematic C. accurate D. all of these.

6. The application of the scientific method to the study of educational problems is called ___.
A. inductive reasoning B. deductive reasoning.
C. educational research D. grounded theory.

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7. Which of the following steps of the scientific method is exemplified by the researcher
reviewing the literature and focusing on a specific problem that has yet to be resolved? A.
Identify a topic.
B. Describe the procedures to collect information.
C. Analyze the collected information.
D. State the results of the data analysis.

8. The following are true statements about action research EXCEPT ___________.
A. data are collected systematically. B. results are generalizable.
C. data are systematically analyzed. D. results are used to improve practice.

9. Mr. Macha designed and conducted his research extremely well. He identified a topic of
importance. His sampling, data collection, and data analyses were carefully described and
quite accurate. Most importantly, he indicated how this work contributed to our
knowledge of the theory he studied. Mr. Morris' work can BEST be described as
___________. A. quantitative research B. qualitative research.
C. educational research D. historical research.

10. A defining characteristic of studies that use the scientific method is __________. A. that
the research procedures and outcomes must be public.
B. the acceptance of expert opinion when results are inconclusive.
C. results that lead to cause-and-effect conclusions.
D. that stated hypotheses are proven true.

11. A characteristic of the scientific method is that ______________. A. any researcher can
replicate the study.
B. the methods used can be understood only by experts.
C. conclusions are tentative and subject to change.
D. findings frequently contradict personal experience.

12. This type of research is intended to be carried out by any professional, in any type of
school or organization, to investigate a problem. The findings are limited in their
generalizability.
A. historical research B. survey research
C. ethnographic study D. action research

13. This type of research is intended to determine the cause for or the consequences of
differences between groups of people.
A. action research B. ethnographic study
C. causal-comparative D. content analysis

14. When a researcher is interested in knowing more than just how well or how accurately
something is done and they want to obtain a more holistic picture of what is happening in
a specific setting or situation, what form of research is called for?
A. experimental research B. content analysis research
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C. survey research D. qualitative research

15. Quantitative researchers usually base their work on the belief that _________. A. facts and
feelings cannot be separated.
B. facts is less important than feelings.
B. facts and feelings can be separated and the world is made up of multiple realities. C.
facts and feelings can be separated and that the world is made up of facts that can be
discovered.
16. Qualitative researchers usually base their work on the assumption that _________. A.
facts is less important than feelings.
B. facts and feelings can be separated and that the world is made up of facts that can be
discovered.
C. the world is made up of multiple realities, socially constructed by different
individual views of the same situation.
D. facts and feelings can be separated, and the world is made up of multiple realities.

17. Suppose in the future, it will be possible to bore a hole through the earth using a pipe and
then a man will drop a ball through the hole. Where will the ball stop, A, B (at the center),
C or D (will pass through)?

1.10 References

Anderson, C.A. (2007). Belief Perseverance (pp. 109-110). In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs
(Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Corbin, J. and Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research. 3 rd Ed. New ork: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Creswell, J. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative
and Qualitative Research, 4th Ed. New York: Pearson.
Fraenkel, J. and Wallen, N. (2009). How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 7 th
Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

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de Neufville, R. and Field, F. (2010). Thesis Definition and Preparation: Some General
Guidelines. Technology & Policy Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA.
DePoy, E. and Gitlin, L. (2011). Introduction to Research: Understanding and Applying
Multiple Strategies. 4th Edition. USA: Mosby, Inc.
Gay, L., Mills, G. and Airasian, P. (2012). Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis
and Applications. 10th Edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Glatthorn, A. (1998). Writing the Winning Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide. Thousand Oaks,
California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Goodwin, C. (2010). Research in Psychology: Methods and Design. 6 th Edition. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Johnson, B. and Christensen, L. (2014). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed Approaches, 5th Ed. New York: Sage Publications, Inc.
Koshy, V. (2005). Action Research for Improving Practice: A Practical Guide. London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students. 5th
Edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

1.11 Acknowledgement

All figures, diagrams, tables and other information contained in this learning packet
were taken from the references enumerated above.

E.A. Malindog Jr.