CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

AFFINITY LAWS

 The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between the several variables involved
in pump performance.

 They apply to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps.

 The premise of the second set of affinity laws is:

 For a given pump with a constant speed, the capacity will be directly proportional to the impeller
diameter, the head will be directly proportional to the square of the impeller diameter, and the
required power will be directly proportional to the cube of the impeller diameter.

CAVITATION

 Cavitation is a phenomenon which occurs in a centrifugal pump when the pressure at any point
inside the pump drops below the vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature of the liquid
that results in the formation of vapor bubbles. These vapor bubbles are carried along with the
flowing liquid and collapse with tremendous shock when a pressure that is higher is reached.

 In other words, cavitation is the formation of cavities of water vapor in the suction side of a
pump due to low suction pressure.

Causes of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation in centrifugal pumps may be caused of the following reasons:

1. Low suction pressure

2. Low atmospheric pressure

3. High liquid temperature

4. High velocity

5. Rough surfaces and edges

6. Sharp bends

Bad Effects of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps

Cavitation in centrifugal pumps results in:

 1. Vibration of the unit

2. Decrease in capacity

3. Pitting due to chemical reaction

4. Corrosion

What are the factors that affect Cavitation?

 To prevent cavitation, the suction pressure must be maintained above the critical pressure from
which it starts. The following points should be considered:

1. The barometric pressure at the point of installation has been a definite

influence on the suction lift that can be permitted. It must be considered for
any installation at high altitudes.
2. The liquid temperature should be as low as possible. As the vapor pressure
increases with the temperature, the available suction lift increases.
3. The velocities in the suction line should be kept low and sharp bends should be
avoided to keep friction and turbulence losses at a minimum.
4. The relative inlet velocity should be kept low.
5. Careful rounding of inlet edges to an airfoil shape, combined with a small inlet
vane thickness, will likewise reduce cavitation.
6. There should be a sufficient number of vanes to guide the water and to keep the
fluid pressure on the vanes low.

What is Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)?

 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the term used to describe pump cavitation
characteristics. Specifically, it is the pressure head in excess of the saturation pressure
of the liquid being pumped.

 The NPSH is the difference between the absolute dynamic pressure of the liquid
measured at the centerline of the pump and the saturation pressure corresponding to
the temperature of the liquid at the same point, all expressed in terms of linear
measurement of the fluid flowing for practical purposes. It can never be a negative
value for the liquid would then flash and vapor would bind the pump.

 The NPSH also refers to the pressure at the pump suction flange, corrected to the pump
centerline, that prevents vaporization of fluid.
What isNet Positive Suction Head Available(NPSHA)?

 Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) is the net positive suction head that is
available or existing at the pump installation. It is equal to the pressure head of the
source of liquid or atmospheric pressure—if the source of water is an open tank—plus
or minus the difference in elevation between surface of liquid at source and pump
centerline minus vapor or saturation pressure of liquid at its temperature minus friction
losses between source of liquid and suction flange, all at which are in the same linear
dimension.

NPSHA = Hp±Hz – Hvp– HL

Where: NPSHA = net positive suction head available, m

Hp = head corresponding to the absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid from which
the pump draws, m

Hz = height of fluid surface above or below the impeller centerline, m

(+) if above the pump centerline

(–) if below the pump centerline

Hvp = head corresponding to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the existing
temperature, m

HL = head loss because of friction and turbulence between the surface of the liquid
and the pump suction flange, m

WhatisNet Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR)?

 Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) is a performance characteristic of a pump

and is established through closed loop or valve suppression tests conducted by the
pump manufacturer. These tests consist of lowering the NPSHA provided to the test
pump until the pump head, power, or efficiency noticeably decreases. NPSHR is
established based on a predefined percentage reduction in head, power, or efficiency.
NPSHR is usually established as 3% head reduction in single-stage pumps or 3% first-
stage head reduction in multi-stage pumps.

 The NPSHR is equal to the gauge pressure reading in linear dimension at suction flange,
corrected to the pump centerline minus vapor pressure or saturation pressure of water
at a given temperature in linear measurement plus the velocity at suction flange.

 It is also measured at the pump by subtracting the gauge vapor pressure head in meters
or feet corresponding to the temperature of the liquid at the point of measurement
 from the gauge pressure head in meters or feet taken at the suction flange, corrected to
the pump centerline for horizontal shaft pumps or to the entrance eye of the suction
impeller for vertical shaft pumps, and adding the velocity head at the point of
measurement.

Things to consider in determining the value of NPSHR,

1. The pump manufacturer should be consulted to determine the basis of the

stated value of NPSHR.

2. The pumping system designer should provide some margin above the stated
NPSHR when designing for pump suction conditions.

Typical margins over the published NPSHR,

1. 10% to 50% — for a simple cold water pumping system

2. 50% to 100% — for a complex boiler feed pumping system with transient
suction operations.

What are the methods to avoid Cavitation?

 It is a must that the absolute pressure of the liquid is always above the vapor pressure
corresponding to the temperature of the liquid at the suction line of the pump. To avoid
cavitation, the following should always be satisfied:

1. NPSH must always be positive

2. NPSHA ≥NPSHR

 Alternatives when NPSHA is Negative or NPSHA < NPSHR

1. Change the plant layout, raising the tanks or heaters from which the liquid is
drawn or decreasing the suction lift.
2. Use a pump of larger size and run it at partial loads or speeds.

Suction Specific Speed Required (S) is an index number descriptive of the suction characteristics of a
given pump design. It is the speed in rpm at which a pump impeller would operate if reduced
proportionately in size so as to deliver a rated capacity of 1 gpm against an NPSHR of 1 ft.

Cavitation Limits of Centrifugal Pumps in Terms of SA

 The cavitation limits for a safe operation of various types of centrifugal pumps may be
estimated in terms of SA as tabulated below
  Pump’s Performance Curve is the graphical representation of the characteristics of a
pump operating at different capacities, heads, and efficiencies at constant speed.

Reciprocating Pump

 Reciprocating pump is a machine in which the pumping action is accomplished by the forward
and backward movement of a piston inside a cylinder, usually provided with valves. It is
classified as a positive displacement pump.

 In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first direct-acting reciprocating steam pump used
for feeding water into boilers.

 Displacement pump is a pump in which energy is periodically added by application of force to

one or more movable boundaries of any desired number of enclosed, fluid-containing volumes.
This results in a direct increase in pressure required to move the fluid through valve or port into
the discharge line.

The types of reciprocating pumps are as follows:

A. and plunger type reciprocating pumps

1. Steam or direct-acting, double-acting pumps
a) simplex pumps
b) duplex pump
 2. Power of indirect-acting pumps
a. Single-acting pumps
I. simplex pumps
II. duplex pumps
III. triplex pumps
IV. multiplex pumps
b. Double-acting pumps

i. simplex pumps
ii. duplex pumps
iii. triplex pumps
iv. multiplex pumps
B. Diaphragm-type reciprocating pumps
1. Simplex-type pumps
a) Fluid operated type
b) Mechanically operated type
2. Multiplex-type pumps
a) Fluid operated type
b) Mechanically operated type

Classifications of Reciprocating Pumps

in Terms of the Method of Driving the Water Piston or Plunger

1. Direct-acting reciprocating pump is a pump that is motivated by the force of steam on the
steam piston. The steam and water pistons are connected by a piston rod. Any force applied on
the steam piston is transmitted to the water piston. Steam and water pistons are normally
double-acting, which means that every stroke of the water piston is a delivery stroke.

 Reciprocating pumps may be of either the piston type or the plunger type.
2. Indirect-acting reciprocating pump is a pump in which water is driven by an electric motor,
internal combustion engine, steam turbine, gas turbine, or steam engine. It is also called a
power pump. It has high efficiency and constant speed because of the type of drive. It is
capable of delivering constant quantity of fluid against a variable head. It is either single-acting
or double-acting.

 The design of power pumps may be horizontal or vertical.

 Classifications of Reciprocating Pumps

in Terms of the Number of Water Cylinder

1. Simplex pump – a reciprocating pump with one cylinder

2. Duplex pump – a reciprocating pump with two cylinders

3. Triplex pump – a reciprocating pump with three cylinders

Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct-Acting Reciprocating Pumps

over Centrifugal Pumps

Advantages

 The design is simpler and pumping action is readily understood by an average mechanic.

 The operation is more flexible.

 The operation is fairly quiet and can be set on a simple light foundation.

 It is not likely to become misaligned.

  It has a comparatively low initial cost and a capacity of up to several hundred liters per
minute.

Disadvantages

 Oily exhaust steam

 Low thermal efficiency

 More inspection and maintenance required

SUMMARY:

 Reciprocating pump, also known as a piston pump, is a pump in which motion and pressure are
applied to the fluid by a reciprocating piston in a cylinder.

 Piston rod is a rod that is connected to the piston, and either moves or is moved by the piston.

 Piston speed is the distance traveled by a piston in a given time usually expressed in fpm or m/s.

 The volume that the piston in a cylinder displaces in a single stroke is known as volume
displacement. It is equal to the product of the distance the piston travels (stroke) and the
internal cross section of the cylinder.

 Direct-acting pump is a displacement-reciprocating pump in which the steam or power piston is

connected to the pump piston by means of a rod, without crank motion or flywheel.

 Displacement pump is a pump that develops its action through the alternate filling and
emptying of an enclosed volume in a piston-cylinder system.

 Positive displacement pump is a pump in which a measured quantity of liquid is entrapped in a

space, its pressure raised, and is delivered like a reciprocating piston cylinder, rotary vane, gear,
or lobe pumps.

 Gear pump is a rotary pump in which to meshing gear wheels rotate in opposite directions so
that the liquid is entrained on one side and discharged on the other side.

 Rotary pumps are displacement pumps that deliver a steady flow by the action of two members
in rotational contact.

 Screw-type pump is a displacement pump that raises liquid by means of helical impellers in the
pump casing.

 Duplex pump is a reciprocating pump with two parallel cylinders.

 Submersible pump is one in which the pump itself and its electric driving motor are together in a
protective housing that permits the unit to operate underwater.
 Regenerative pump, also known as a turbine pump, has a rotating-vane device that uses a
combination of mechanical impulse and centrifugal force to produce high liquid heads at low
discharge.

 Vertical turbine pump, also known as a deep-well pump, is multi-stage centrifugal pump used
for lifting water from deep and small-diameter wells. A surface electric motor operates the
shaft.

 Hydraulic machine is powered b a motor activated by the confined flow of a stream of liquid,
such as oil or water under pressure.

 Hydraulic motor is activated by water or other liquid under pressure.

 Jet pump is a pump in which an accelerating jet entrains a second fluid to deliver it at elevated
pressure.

 The rotative speed (N) in rpm, of an indirect-acting reciprocating pump foe cold water is given
by the equation, N = 907(L-0.5), where L is the stroke in mm.

 Hydraulic pump, also known as a hydraulic ram, is used to force running water to a higher level
by using kinetic energy of flow. The flow of water in the supply pipeline is periodically stopped
so that a small portion of water is lifted by the velocity head of a larger portion.

 The science and technology concerning the mechanics of fluids, especially liquids, is known as
hydraulics.

 Steady flow is a flow of fluids in which all the conditions at any one point in a pipe line are
constant with respect to time.

 Triplex pumps are three-cylindered pumps used to produce overlapping deliveries and minimize
pulsation.

 The discharge capacity of a reciprocating pump is given by the equation, Q = η v VD, where VD is
the volume displacement in m3/s, η v is the volumetric efficiency, and Q is the discharge capacity
of the pump in m3/s.

 A direct-acting, steam-driven reciprocating pump is one in which the steam piston connects
directly to the liquid piston or plunger.

 In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first reciprocating steam pump for feeding water
into a boiler.

 There are two general type of direct-acting steam pumps:

 Simplex type – has one steam and one water cylinder

 Duplex type – has two duplicate steam and two water cylinders
  Plunger-type pump is a reciprocating pump where the packing is on the stationary
casing instead of on the moving piston.

 Diaphragm pump is a reciprocating pump used as a diaphragm to isolate the operating

parts from pumped liquid in a mechanically actuated diaphragm.

 Diaphragm pumps, another design of reciprocating pumps, are used for handling thick pulps,
sewage sludge, acids or alkaline solutions, mixture of water and gritty solids that wear out metal
pumps, as well as liquid solutions or pulps where a constant flow volume is required.

 Diaphragm is a diaphragm pump is made of special rubber that resists corrosion, abrasion and
in special cases, oil and high temperature.

 Sludge pumps are primarily designed for pumping sludge or susbstances too heavy to be
handled successfully by a centrifugal pumps.

HYDRAULIC TURBINES

 Hydraulic turbines are water wheels in which the motion of water relative to its bucket
is essential to its action.

 Hydraulic turbines are machines that convert the energy of an elevated water supply into
mechanical energy through a rotating shaft.

 Hydraulic loss is the loss in fluid power due to flow friction within the system.

 Hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is produced by hydroelectric

generators.

 In this facility:

 Water is the main source of energy.

 Kinetic energy and potential energy are converted to mechanical work.

 Hydraulic turbine is the prime mover.

 Input power is the water horsepower.

 Output power is the turbine horsepower.

 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

 According to the action of water

 Impulse turbine

 Reaction turbine
  According to the direction of water flow

 Radial outward

 Radial inward

 Axial or parallel

 Mixed radial

 According to the position of the shaft

 Vertical turbine

 Horizontal turbine

 Impulse turbine is a hydraulic turbine or a prime mover in which fluid under pressure enters a
stationary nozzle where the pressure (potential) energy is converted to velocity (kinetic) energy
and absorbed by the rotor.

 It is also known as tangential wheel or Pelton wheel.

 The name Pelton is to acknowledge and honor its inventor Lester A. Pelton of California.

 The wheel passage is not completely filled with water.

 He water acting on wheel is always atmospheric.

 It utilized kinetic energy of high velocity jet.

 It is used for high head above 200 ft but most commonly applied to heads above 700 ft.

 The range of head from 200 to 700 ft is used for small units.

 Heads of 5000 ft have been used in European installations.

 Impulse turbine’s efficiencies vary

from about 82% to 90%.

 The net effective head is measured at the

bottom of the pitch circle of the runner with
no consideration given to the water level at
the tailrace (because there is no
draft tube).

Reaction Turbine
  Energy used are both kinetic and pressure energy.

 It is used for medium heads, usually employed for heads f 70 to 900 ft, and at times, up
to 1100 ft.

 Francis type may have either horizontal or vertical shaft.

 Efficiencies range from 90% to 94%.

Types of Water Turbine Runner

1. Propeller or axial turbine or Kaplan turbine is a special type of propeller turbine

featuring variable-angle blades that can be charged with water flow to maintain high
efficiency.

2. Francis or radial-and mixed-flow turbine is used for an intermediate range of heads.

3. Pelton or impulse turbine is used in the highest heads.

Specific Speed

 The specific speed of a hydraulic turbine is the speed in rpm in which a geometrically similar or
homologous turbine would operate to deliver one (1) brake horsepower under a head of one
foot.

RANGES OF SPECIFIC SPEED

 Types of hydraulic turbines are classified in terms of the following specific speed ranges:

 Francis runners – used for intermediate heads, Ns = 18 to 85 rpm

 Mixed-flow runners – used for medium to low heads, Ns =

100 to 125 rpm

 Propeller runners – used for lowest heads, Ns = 110 to 150 rpm

 Kaplan runners – with pivoted blades that can be angled for best efficiency at any load,
Ns = 80 to 150 rpm

HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT:

Hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is produced by hydroelectric generators.

DEFINITION OF TERMS FOR A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

  Gross head is the total difference in elevation between the water surface in the stream
at the diversion and the water surface in the stream at the point where the water is
returned after having been used for power.

 Net or effective head is the head available for energy production after deducting losses
in friction.

 Hydraulic efficiency is equal to the ratio of net head to gross head.

TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

1. Storage-type plant or high-head hydroelectric plant is one with reservoir of sufficient

size to permit carry-over storage from the wet season to dry season, and thus develops
a firm flow, substantially more than the minimum natural flow.

2. A run-of-river plant is one that has very limited storage capacity, and uses water only as it
comes. Some plants have enough storage, called pondage, to permit storing water during the
off-peak-hour for use during peak-hour of the day. Run-of-river plants are suitable only for
streams that have a sustained flow during the dry season or where other reservoirs upstream
provide the necessary storage.
The reversible pump-turbine is a compromise in design between a Francis turbine and a centrifugal
pump. Its function is reversed by changing the direction of the rotation.

3. Pumped-storage plant or hydraulic accumulator is one that generates power for peak loads. At
an off-peak-hour period, water is pumped from the tailwater pool to the headwater pool for
future use. The pumps are powered with secondary power from some other plants in the
system. For heads from 50 to 300 ft, reversible pump-turbines have been devised to operate at
relatively high efficiency as either a pump or turbine. The same electrical unit serves as
generator and motor by reversing poles. Such a machine may reduce the cost of a pumped-
storage project by eliminating the extra pumping equipment and pump house.
Definition of Terms and Other Useful Information

 Reservoir is the chamber that stores water coming from the upper river or waterfalls.

 Headwater is the water stored in the reservoir.

 Spillway is a passage in the reservoir which discharges excess water to maintain the head of the
plant.

 Dam is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.

 Silt sluice is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the mud is discharge.

 Trash rack is the screen that prevents leaves, branches, and other contaminants to enter into
the penstock.

 Valve is the reservoir component that opens and closes the entrance of the water into the
penstock.

 Surge chamber is a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and attached to the penstock so
that the water will be at atmospheric pressure.

 Penstock is the channel that directs water from the reservoir to the turbine.
  Tailwater is the water that is discharged from the turbine.

Volumetric efficiency refers to the possible loss of flow through leakage around the outside of the rotor
or rotating element.

Hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of the power transferred from the water to the rotor and the available
power in the fluid that effectively flows through the rotor, or the ratio of the utilized head and the net or
effective head of the turbine.

Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power exerted by the water
or the rotor.

Turbine total efficiency, or simply turbine efficiency is the ratio of the brake power to that of the turbine
theoretical or water power.

Over-all efficiency, or turbine-generator efficiency is the ratio of the generator output and the water
power or turbine theoretical power.

Generator efficiency is the ratio of the generator output power and the turbine brake power.

SUMMARY:

 Water turbines convert the potential energy in water behind a dam into shaft work,
ordinarily used to drive an electric generator.

 Kaplan turbines is a special type of propeller turbine featuring variable-angle blades

that can be changed with water flow to maintain high efficiency.

 Francis or radial-and mixed-flow turbines are used for an intermediate range of heads.

 Propeller turbines are built with fixed blades and variable-pitch blades.

 One disadvantage of most hydro plants in their dependence on the rate of water flow in
a river.

 One method of storing water during low power-demand periods of supply energy during
high-load periods of hydro plants is to use the reversible pump turbine.

 Pump turbines are usually physically larger than a turbine of the same capacity, and the
motor generator is more costly than a standard generator.
 The horsepower developed by a hydraulic turbine may be calculated by deriving an
QH eff ρE
equation based on the definition of a horsepower, such as: P = , where P is
550
the turbine output, in Hp; Q is the water flow, cfs; H eff is the net effective head, ft; ρ is
the density of water, lb/ft3; and E is the turbine hydraulic efficiency.

 A net effective head is the difference in the total head for the water entering the
turbine casing and the total head leaving the draft tube.

 Specific speed is the speed of a hypothetical model turbine having the same
configuration as the actual turbine, when the model would be of the proper size to
develop 1 Hp at a head of 1ft.

 Speed factor is the ratio of peripheral velocity of the buckets to the velocity of the water
jet.

N √ BP
 Specific speed of a hydraulic turbine is given by the equation: Ns = 5
H eff 4
where Ns is the specific speed, rpm; BP is the brake power of the turbine, Hp; and H eff is
the effective head of the turbine, ft.

 Lester A. Pelton is the inventor of the Pelton wheel of a hydraulic turbine.

 Impulse turbine efficiencies vary from about 82% and 90%.