Master 1

Health and Disease

Year 2019-20

1
 Organisation of the semester

This semester, you will have 21 hours of specific English.

Objectives
The main objectives will be to :

study scientific language and vocabulary relating to health and disease

develop academic writing and listening skills

practise speaking and debating in different situations

Program
1/ listening

watching videos and listening to discussions about your subject of study
2/ reading

learning to read specialised texts quickly for key information
3/ speaking

debates and presentations
4/ writing

explaining and discussing written or oral documents

Assessment
The marks will be the following
Written exam 20 (50% with Workplace)
Debate 20
Total mark 40

Your presence is compulsory ; all absences must be justified by a medical

certificate.

The language classes are held in Building 5 :

Downstairs for classrooms beginning with 0
Ground floor for classrooms beginning with 1
First floor (near amphi 2) for classrooms beginning with 2
Teacher in charge of English :
Sonia Chalbi [email protected]

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 Table of contents
Academic writing
Scientific writing video parts 1 to 3 p.6
Writing an abstract p.7
Typical mistakes p.9
Some matters of style : omit needless words p.12
Eliminating wordiness p.14
Scientific writing video parts 5 to 6 p.15
A list of mostly technical terms with Greek/Latin style plurals p.17
Common scholarly abbreviations p.20
The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English p.21
Laboratory procedures
Designing an experimental set up p.24
Dealing with numbers and units p.29
Keeping a lab notebook p.30
Language : describing a process p.32
Practice makes perfect
Seven wonders of the microbe world academic report p.36
Write a summary assignment based on New Scientist/Ted articles p.37
Immunology : Drop in Ebola cases may thwart drug and vaccine trials p.38
Immunology/ Cancer : US-Cuba thaw may yield cancer drugs p.39
Immunology : Immune reset aids kidney transplants p.40
Cancer : Cancer's path depends on mutation order p.41
Cancer : Catch cancer as it spreads with a trap p.42
Neuroscience : Sentinel at the gates of addiction p.43
Neuroscience : A stable mind is a conscious mind p.45
Neuroscience : No neutral gear for the sleep-deprived p.46
Genetics : Can a DNA test reveal sexuality? p.47
Genetics : Wasp uses virus to make GM butterfly p.49
Genetics : Baby's genes mapped at birth p.50
Debating a current issue
Assignment p.54
Video comprehension exercise p.55
Practice p.56
Bank of expressions p.57
Video : will declining funding stunt scientific discovery in the U.S.? p.59
Neuroscience key words p.60
Genetics key words p.62
Immunology key words p.63
Cancer + Cancer treatment key words p.64
Clinical trials key words p.65
Roleplay
The bioethics of human cloning p.69

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Bioethical decision-making sheet p.72
Roleplay A : a kidney for Katie p.73
Roleplay B : the hope for a resurrected child p.74
Roleplay C : protecting the nation of Lepidoptera p.75
Immunology roleplay on H5N1 epidemics p.76
Cancer : 5 roleplay scenarios p.79
Neuroscience roleplay p.80
Useful grammar for science
Present and past tenses p.82
Exercises p.86
Compound nouns and adjectives p.87
Exercises p.89
Modification p.90
Exercises p.92
Linkwords p.93
Exercises p.95
Modality p.97
Exercises p.100
Article A : Dual Inhibition of Endocannabinoid Catabolic Enzymes Produces
Enhanced Anti-Withdrawal Effects in Morphine-Dependent Mice p.104
Article B : Analyzing the function of small GTPases by microinjection of plasmids into
polarized epithelial cells. p.105
Article C : Differential diagnosis of scrub typhus meningitis from bacterial meningitis
using clinical and laboratory features. p.106
Article D : Treatment of recurrent and platinum-refractory stage IV non-small cell
lung cancer with nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel (nab-paclitaxel) as a single
agent. p.107
Miscellaneous
Vocabulary for writing a summary (based on reading or listening) p.109
Writing an abstract : common mistakes p.111
Will declining funding stunt scientific discovery in the U.S.? p.115
Medical numbers trivia p.118
Unusual medical numbers trivia p.119
New Year, New Lab : Scientists share their 2016 resolutions across Twitter p.121
The neuroscience of Star Wars p.122
Linkwords p.125
Designing a scientific poster
Tips for making a better research poster p.129
Group work p.130
Templates p.131

4
Academic writing

5
 Video part 1
You are going to work on a video about scientific writing. Before we begin, think
about this question : what is the relationship between an abstract and speed dating?

 Now watch and check. Did you find the same answer as Ben? Do you agree with
him?

Video part 2
Here is the text of a student’s abstract. Work in pairs. Find any mistakes and correct
them, then try to divide them into three types of mistake. Name the three categories.

Problematic areas

Being devoted to the actual problems of informatiks, utilizing

numerous scientific methodical – among others, OLS, QCA, etc,

- the present article will be dedicated to elaborating the

correlation between processor speed and software

performances, contending that more processor speeds causes

more software performance and fewer processor speeds

transpires to lesser software performances, as well as arguing

that past researches have wrongly measured the factors, i.e.,

the variables.

Now watch the next part of the video and finish off your correction.
What were the three categories of mistakes?
____________________
____________________
____________________
Video part 3
Watch the next part about vocabulary. Did you find all the mistakes?

6
 Writing an abstract

An abstract is a shortened version of the paper and should contain all information
necessary for the reader to determine:
(1) what the objectives of the study were;
(2) how the study was done;
(3) what results were obtained;
(4) and the significance of the results.
Frequently, readers of a scientific journal will only read the abstract, choosing to read
at length those papers that are most interesting to them. For this reason, and
because abstracts are frequently made available to scientists by various computer
abstracting services, this section should be written carefully and succinctly to have
the greatest impact in as few words as possible.

A/ Language
A number of different reporting verbs can be used in author-prominent
citations. Complete the definitions using the reporting verbs in the box below :

conclude demonstrate discover hypothesise

observe prove suggest

(1) __________ or (2) : to use an experiment to show that something is true

(3) __________ : to carefully watch the way something happens, then

record it.

(4) __________ and (5) : to give a possible explanation for something which
has not been proved.

(6) __________ : to decide something after thinking about it carefully

(7) __________ : to find or learn information, especially something

new.

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The following phrases can also be used to signal the purpose of each part of an
abstract. Divide the phrases (a-l) into four groups according to functions (1-4) :
Functions
1/ state the research question
2/ present the hypothesis
3/ introduce the method
4/ introduce key results
Phrases
a/ an investigation was undertaken to explore…
b/ it seems likely that…
c/ results show that …
d/ the aim of the study was to ….
e/ the data suggest that …
f/ the present study investigates…
g/ the study provides strong evidence that …
h/ we demonstrate that…
i/ we expected that …
j/ we investigated a new method of VERB-ING
k/ the method involved VERB-ING
l/ was found to…

Function 1 Function 2 Function 3 Function 4

The text of an abstract must be concise. Replace the underlined words in extracts 1-5
below with that or those :
1/ The hormone increased the power output of healthy volunteers by 16 per cent after four
weeks of taking the drug. Healthy volunteers who took the drug could also exercise 50 per
cent longer than control subjects.
2/ We compare photographic exposure from scattered light with light from direct light.
3/ The target yield is the yield which can be produced in « perfect » conditions.
4/ Structures like the structures described in this paper are not known in glyptodonts
recorded before the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI).5/ The lithology of failed
carbonate strata differs from the lithology of their basal shear surfaces.

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 Typical mistakes when writing an abstract or article.
"In my writing, I average about ten pages a

day.

Unfortunately, they're all the same page."

Michael Alley, The Craft of Scientific Writing

A major part of any writing assignment consists of re-writing.

 Write accurately
Scientific writing must be accurate. Although writing instructors may tell you not to
use the same word twice in a sentence, it's okay for scientific writing, which must be
accurate. (A student who tried not to repeat the word "hamster" produced this
confusing sentence: "When I put the hamster in a cage with the other animals, the
little mammals began to play.")

1. Make sure you say what you mean.

Instead of: The rats were injected with the drug. (sounds like a syringe was
filled with drug and ground-up rats and both were injected together)
 Write: I injected the drug into the rat.

2. Be careful with commonly confused words:

Instead of: Temperature has an effect on the reaction.

Write : Temperature affects the reaction.

Write : Less food (can't count numbers of food)

Write : Fewer animals (can count numbers of animals)

Write : A large amount of food (can't count them)

Write : A large number of animals (can count them)

Instead of: The erythrocytes that are in the blood contain haemoglobin.
(Wrong : this sentence implies that there are erythrocytes elsewhere that don't
contain haemoglobin.)

Write : The erythrocytes, which are in the blood, contain haemoglobin.

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 Write clearly
1. Write at a level that's appropriate for your audience.
2. Use the active voice to explain results. It's clearer and more concise than the
passive voice.
Instead of : An increased appetite was manifested by the rats and an increase
in body weight was measured.
 Write : The rats ate more and gained weight.
3. Avoid dangling participles.
Instead of: "After incubating at 30 degrees C, we examined the petri plates."
(You must've been pretty warm in there ☺ .)
 Write "After a 30 degree C incubation..."

 Write succinctly
1. Use verbs instead of abstract nouns
Instead of: take into consideration  Write: consider
2. Use strong verbs instead of "to be"
Instead of: The enzyme was found to be the active agent in catalyzing...
 Write: The enzyme catalyzed...
3. Use short words.

"I would never use a long word where a short one would answer the

purpose. I know there are professors in this country who 'ligate'

arteries. Other surgeons tie them, and it stops the bleeding just as well."
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr .

Instead of: Write:

possess have
sufficient enough
utilize use
assistance help
terminate end

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4. Use concise terms.
Instead of: Write:
prior to before
due to the fact that because
in a considerable number of cases often
the vast majority of most
during the time that when/while
in close proximity to near

5. Use short sentences.

A sentence made of more than 40 words should probably be rewritten as two
sentences.

"The conjunction 'and' commonly serves to indicate that the writer's

mind still functions even when no signs of the phenomenon are

noticeable."
Rudolf Virchow, 1928

Check your grammar, spelling and punctuation

Use a spellchecker, but be aware that they don't catch all mistakes.
"When we consider the animal as a hole ..." Student's paper

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 Some Matters of Style - Omit Needless Words

Read the article below.

Virtually all experienced writers agree that any written expression that
deserves to be called vigorous writing, whether it is a short story, an article
for a professional journal, or a complete book, is characterized by the
attribute of being succinct, concise, and to the point. A sentence—no
matter where in the writing it occurs—should contain no unnecessary or
superfluous words, words that stand in the way of the writer’s direct
expression of his or her meaning and purpose. In a very similar fashion, a
paragraph—the basic unit of organization in English prose—should
contain no unnecessary or superfluous sentences, sentences that
introduce peripheral content into the writing or stray from its basic narrative
line. It is in this sense that a writer is like an artist executing a drawing, and
it is in this sense that a writer is like an engineer designing a machine.
Good writing should be economical for the same reason that a drawing
should have no unnecessary lines, and good writing should be streamlined
in the same way that a machine is designed to have no unnecessary
parts, parts that contribute little or nothing to its intended function.
This prescription to be succinct and concise is often misunderstood and
requires judicious application. It certainly does not imply that the writer
must make all of his or her sentences short and choppy or leave out all
adjectives, adverbs, and qualifiers. Nor does it mean that he or she must
avoid or eliminate all detail from the writing and treat his or her subjects
only in the barest skeleton or outline form. But the requirement does imply
that every word committed to paper should tell something new to the
reader and contribute in a significant and non-redundant way to the
message that the writer is trying to convey.

You have just read a 303 word essay on brevity. It is not a terrible first draft, but a
good writer or copy editor would take its message to heart and, by crossing out all the
non-italicized words, cut it by 81%.

Savour the result:

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary

words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary
parts. This requires not that the writer make all sentences short or avoid all
detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell. [59 words]

This essay on brevity was written by Strunk and White (2000, p. 23)

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Exercise
Now edit this paragraph, removing all the unnecessary words.

Psychology is a wide field of study, and we are not equally strong in all
parts of it. At present, we regard our major strengths as lying in three
broadly defined domains in which we have many faculty, and a couple of
smaller areas in which also have appreciable resources. The three primary
areas are Biopsychology, Experimental Psychology, and Personality and
Social Psychology; the others are Mathematical/Differential Psychology
and Experimental Psychopathology. The areas and the relevant faculty
are listed below. Please note that this listing is informal; it does not imply
that the listed faculty members have no other interests or can readily be
fitted into predefined areas. The actual network of faculty interests and
responsibilities is too subtle to be described in a letter such as this. The
listing is just a rough and ready way to tell you what the Field of
Psychology at Cornell is like. [149 words]

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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 Eliminating Wordiness
Exercise 1
Revise these sentences to state their meaning in fewer words. Avoid passive voice,
needless repetition, and wordy phrases and clauses. The first sentence has been
done as an example.

1. A large number of farmers from the local neighbourhood have said that they
are likely to be present at the meeting that has been arranged for next Friday.
Many local farmers plan to attend next Friday's meeting.

2. Although Bradley Hall is regularly populated by students, close study of the

building as a structure is seldom undertaken by them.
.......................................................................................................................................
3. He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him
to help support his family.
.......................................................................................................................................
4. It is expected that the new schedule will be announced by the bus company
within the next few days.
.......................................................................................................................................
5. There are many ways in which a student who is interested in meeting foreign
students may come to know one.
.......................................................................................................................................
6. It is very unusual to find someone who has never told a deliberate lie on
purpose.
.......................................................................................................................................
7. Trouble is caused when people disobey rules that have been established for
the safety of all.
.......................................................................................................................................
8. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students
were arrested by campus police for disorderly conduct, while several others are
charged by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without being
issued a permit to do so.
.......................................................................................................................................
9. The subjects that are considered most important by students are those that
have been shown to be useful to them after graduation.
.......................................................................................................................................
10. In the not too distant future, college freshmen must all become aware of the
fact that there is a need for them to make contact with an academic adviser
concerning the matter of a major.
.......................................................................................................................................
11. In our company there are wide-open opportunities for professional growth with
a company that enjoys an enviable record for stability in the dynamic atmosphere of
aerospace technology.
.......................................................................................................................................
12. Some people believe in capital punishment, while other people are against it;
there are many opinions on this subject.
.......................................................................................................................................

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 Video part 5
What are academic formalities? Can you give some examples?
Now watch and check.

Video part 6
Read the following.
How NOT to write an abstract: examples of poor abstracts
What is an abstract? One of the best ways of learning to write good abstracts
is to look at other people's mistakes. Review the three abstracts below, and compare
your reactions to our own comments.

Abstract 1
Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) is an area which is rapidly expanding
amongst Higher Education institutions as the power of available hardware rises
facilitating new and innovative HE teaching and learning environments. The
University Institute of recently allocated funds to stimulate a learning
technology program which was generally intended to impinge on all 4 Faculties
within the institution. Each faculty was asked to bring forward, software
development schemes and bids for equipment and other, necessary resources
such as human resources, consumables, etc. The purpose of this paper is to
describe the experience of a team of academics in the Department of French,
School of Modern Languages within the Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social
Studies at the University Institute of in the development of a Computer-
assisted learning software program. Funding was made available from a
central source to develop and implement a software program to assist French
language learners to acquire vocabulary in "an innovative and measurably
effective manner". The software was implemented and tested on a cohort of
level 2 students who had, in general, studied French for 8 years, and staff and
students were consulted with regards to their reactions.

Permission to use this article is granted by Professor Gabriel Jacobs at the University
of Swansea
Abstract 2
Reviews the manufacturing and processing challenges involved in the later
stages of the manufacture of large area full frontal wire mesh coating and
describes some of the techniques employed by CSW Packaging Solutions.
Abstract 3
In this article, research as "mass media" (Lerhmann) is appraised. "Videocy" or
videoed research results are examined. A form of video research with its roots
in action research, Cabalistic methodology and oral anthropology is reported
on. The counterparts it produces, wherein disclosure loops are used to
produce an effect similar to the fractalizations of reality, achieves a powerful
simulation of reality. But is it a "responsible" form of (research) practice?

15
Now work in pairs on the student’s abstract. Follow the advice you’ve seen in the
video and produce a better version.

Problematic areas

Being devoted to the actual problems of informatiks, utilizing

numerous scientific methodical – among others, OLS, QCA, etc,

- the present article will be dedicated to elaborating the

correlation between processor speed and software

performances, contending that more processor speeds causes

more software performance and fewer processor speeds

transpires to lesser software performances, as well as arguing

that past researches have wrongly measured the factors, i.e.,

the variables.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Now watch the end and compare your version with Ben’s.

16
 A list of mostly technical terms with Greek/Latin style plurals

Latin plurals
Singular
Plural A = AE
abscissa
abscissae nebula
nebulae
alga
algae placenta
placentae
alumna
alumnae pleura
pleurae
antenna
antennae pupa
pupae
caesura
caesurae scapula
scapulae
lacuna
lacunae verruca
verrucae
minutia
minutiae vertebra
vertebrae

Singular
Plural UM = A
addendum
addenda minimum
minima
aquarium
aquaria mycobacterium
mycobacteria
atrium
atria optimum
optima
colloquium
colloquia ovum
ova
compendium
compendia phylum
phyla
consortium
consortia podium
podia
continuum
continua pudendum
pudenda
corrigendum
corrigenda quantum
quanta
cranium
crania referendum
referenda
curriculum
curricula rostrum
rostra
datum
data sacrum
sacra
desideratum
desiderata sanatarium
sanataria
dictum
dicta sanatorium
sanatoria
effluvium
effluvia septum
septa
encomium
encomia serum
sera
equilibrium
equilibria simulacrum
simulacra
erratum
errata solarium
solaria
extremum
extrema spectrum
spectra
honorarium
honoraria stadium
stadia
infimum
infima sternum
sterna
maximum
maxima stratum
strata
medium
media substratum
substrata
memorandum
memoranda symposium
symposia
millenium
millenia ultimatum
ultimata

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Singular
Plural US= I
alumnus
alumni fungus
fungi
alveolus
alveoli genus
genera
umbilicus
umbilici genius
genii
tumulus
tumuli esophagus
esophagi
torus
tori
incubus
incubi
terminus
termini
locus
loci
succubus
succubi
magus
magi
syllabus
syllabi
modulus
moduli
bacillus
bacilli
nucleus
nuclei
bronchus
bronchi
nucleolus
nucleoli
cactus
cacti
radius
radii
calculus
calculi
rhombus
rhombi
annulus
annuli
sarcophagus
sarcophagi
colossus
colossi
stimulus
stimuli
focus
foci

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 Greek plurals
Singular
Plural IS/IX = ES
analysis
analyses matrix
matrices
appendix
appendices neurosis
neuroses
axis
axes periphrasis
periphrases
catharsis
catharses psychosis
psychoses
cicatrix
cicatrices radix
radices
crisis
crises simplex
simplices
diaeresis
diaereses synopsis
synopses
diagnosis
diagnoses synthesis
syntheses
directrix
directrices testis
testes
ellipsis
ellipses thesis
theses
emphasis
emphases thrombosis thromboses
ephemeris
ephemerides vertex
vertices

Singular
Plural ON = A
automaton
automata octahedron
octahedra
criterion
criteria phenomenon
phenomena
dodecahedron
dodecahedra polyhedron
polyhedra
icosahedron
icosahedra tetrahedron
tetrahedra

IRREGULAR
corpus
corpora
opus
opera
schema
schemata
stigma
stigmata
spermatozoon
spermatozoa

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 Common Scholarly Abbreviations
abbr.
abbreviation, abbreviated
anon.
anonymous
b.
born
c. (ca.)
circa or around (used with dates)
cf.
compare
ch. (chap.)
chapter
d.
died
def.
definition
doc.
document
ed.
editor, edition, edited by
e.g.
for example (from the Latin exempli gratia)
et al.
and others (from the Latin et alii, et aliae, et alia)
etc.
and so on (from the Latin et cetera)
fig.
figure
ibid.
in the same place (from the Latin ibidem)
i.e.
that is (from the Latin id est)
illus.
illustration, illustrated by
NB
take note (from the Latin nota bene)
no.
number
op. cit.
in the work cited (from the Latin opere citato)
p., pp.
page, pages
pub.
publisher, published by
qtd.
quoted
rev.
revision, revised by
rpt.
reprint
sec.
section
trans.
translation, translated by
U or univ.
university
viz.
namely (from the Latin videlicet)
vol.
volume
vs.
versus

NB: It is not advised to use abbreviations in academic work such as dissertations, theses, or
abstracts. Everything should be written in full or it could give the wrong impression.
Two examples:
etc. might suggest you are lazy, not making the effort to quote enough instances and
leaving your reader do the work.
With i.e. your reader could be under the impression that you lack confidence in your
writing or that you trust his understanding so little that you need to rephrase to make sure s/he
understands.

Acronyms
Before you can use an acronym (WTO for example), make sure you have written it in full
the first time it appears in the text (World Trade Organization) so your reader can refer to it if
needs be.

20
 The Vicissitudes of the Latin Plural in English
by Maeve Maddox, http://www.dailywritingtips.com/
A recent forum question asks about the word data.
The dictionary says the word data can be treated as a singular. But strictly speaking the
word is a plural. How does such a thing happen in language? You wouldn’t say, “the cars
is fast”. How does a plural gain acceptance as a singular?
The answer is,
A plural gains acceptance as a singular because language is always changing to suit the
comfort of the people who speak it.
In the case of data, the singular form datum has been rejected by most English speakers as not
sounding right. Hence “data is” and “data are.”
When the study of Latin was standard in the curriculum of English- speaking children, no one
thought twice about using datum as the singular form of data. Now that Latin is a rarity in American
education, datum sounds foreign and has been abandoned in general usage. The distinctions between
Latin singulars and plurals is still observed for some English words in some contexts–scientific or
academic–but for the most part, either the singular or the plural Latin form, depending upon which sounds
“less English,” tends to be dropped.
Here are some words that started out with Latin singular and plural forms. In some cases both
survive. In others, the plural has been anglicized or taken over as the singular.

alumna/alumnae; alumnus/alumni
Literally “foster daughter” and “foster son,” these words refer in American usage to graduates of
an educational institution. Most universities tend to use the masculine forms only. Alumnus is still in use
as a singular, but I have heard people use alumni as if it could be either singular or plural.

datum/data In common usage the plural, data, has become accepted as either singular or plural.

medium/media The parts of this pair have taken on different meanings. The plural, media, has come
to mean methods of communication such as newspapers, television, radio, and film. Medium can
mean the material used by an artist to produce an artistic creation. It can also mean any method for
accomplishing something.
Ex. As a reporter, he’s a member of the media. Which of these mediums do you prefer,
watercolor or oil? By means of what medium do you expect to accomplish this?
And yes, another kind of medium is a person through whom spirits speak.

appendix/appendices The Latin plural is still in use, but one also hears appendixes.

formula/formulae The Latin plural persists in scientific contexts, but one often hears formulas.

encyclopedia/encyclopediae The English plural encyclopedias is more common than the Latin.

index/indices The Latin plural is used in academic contexts, but one commonly hears indexes.

axis/axes I don’t think I’ve ever heard anyone say “axises.” It’s not a word that commonly comes up
in conversation.

21

crisis/crises I have heard “crisises” but in this case the Latin plural crises [cry seez] is easier to say
and will probably persist.

criterion/criteria Here is a pair that persists in both the Latin singular and plural. One judges the
worth of a book according to a set of criteria. One criterion might be style. Another criterion might
be accuracy.

phenomenon/phenomena A tornado is a phenomenon of Nature. Other phenomena are
earthquakes, thunderstorms, and floods. Both the singular and plural forms of this word are alive and
well.

agendum/agenda Here the singular form has dropped out and people speak of both an agenda and
agendas.

memorandum/memoranda Both of these forms are still in use, but I’ve heard memorandums.

cactus/cacti Some people still use the Latin plural, but one hears cactuses.

fungus/fungi[fun dzhai] Both forms are in use, but one also hears funguses.

hippopotamus/hippopotami Since most people now call them hippos, the Latin plural is not much
in use. The plural hippopotamuses is a mouthful and when used tends to sound humorous.
Some other unusual singular/plural pairs that may seem to derive from Latin come instead from Greek.
They are sometimes mistakenly given invented Latin plurals.

octopus You may hear someone use the plural
octopi for this word, but the Latin plural would be
octopodes. The English plural is octopuses.

stigma – Here’s a word whose original plural
has taken on a different meaning with the result
that stigmata and stigmas mean different
things.
A stigma is some kind of negative mark. It is usually
used figuratively. Ex. In the 1950s a woman was ruined by the stigma of an illegitimate child. The
politician was never able to overcome the stigma of having embezzled state funds. The plural of stigma is
stigmas.
The original plural stigmata refers to the crucifixion wounds of Christ and to the marks of these wounds
as they have appeared on the bodies of certain Christian mystics. Ex. Mystics known to have experienced
stigmata include Francis of Assisi and Catherine of Siena.

dogma – The original plural was dogmata, but dogmas has prevailed. The older plural, however,
gives us the adjective dogmatic.

There are several other Latin and Greek singular/plural pairs still in use, but these are probably the most
common.

22
Laboratory
procedures

23
 Designing an experimental set up
1/ Match the instruments to the pictures

  

 

 

gloves freshly filled ice bucket micropipettor

work bench cap microcentrifuge tube PCR tube rack
PCR DNA polymerase with buffer

24
 2/ Assembling reagents and materials : find the missing verbs in this description

analyze approximate arrange combined

contaminating dispense keep organize
required scaled setting up thaw

a) When 1_______________________ a PCR experiment, it is important to be prepared.

Wear gloves to avoid 2_______________________ the reaction mixture or reagents.
Include a negative control, and if possible a positive control.
b) 3_______________________ all reagents needed for the PCR experiment in a
freshly filled ice bucket, and let them 4_______________________ completely before
setting up a reaction. 5_______________________ the reagents on ice throughout the
experiment.
Standard PCR reagents include a set of appropriate primers for the desired target
gene or DNA segment to be amplified, DNA polymerase, a buffer for the specific DNA
polymerase, deoxynucleotides (dNTPs), DNA template, and sterile water.
Additional reagents may include Magnesium salt Mg2+ (at a final concentration of 0.5
to 5.0 mM), Potassium salt K+ (at a final concentration of 35 to 100 mM), dimethylsulfoxide
(DMSO; at a final concentration of 1-10%), formamide (at a final concentration of 1.25-10%),
bovine serum albumin (at a final concentration of 10-100 µg/ml), and Betaine (at a final
concentration of 0.5 M to 2.5 M).
c) 6_______________________ laboratory equipment on the workbench.
Materials include PCR tubes and caps, a PCR tube rack, an ethanol-resistant marker,
and a set of micropipettors that 7_______________________ between 1 - 10 µl (P10), 2 -
20 µl (P20), 20 - 200 µl (P200) and 200 - 1000 µl (P1000), as well as a thermal cycler.
When setting up several PCR experiments that all use the same reagents, they can
be 8_______________________ appropriately and 9_______________________ together
in a master mixture (Master Mix). This step can be done in a sterile 1.8 ml microcentrifuge
tube.
To 10_______________________ the amplicons resulting from a PCR experiment,
reagents and equipment for agarose gel electrophoresis is 11_______________________.
To 12_______________________ the size of a PCR product, an appropriate, commercially
available molecular weight size standard is needed.

25
 3/ Experimental set up : read the summary aloud, then check your
pronunciation with the video (2'24 until 4'22)
Always create a table of reagents detailing the reaction mixture with Q.S (Latin
abbreviation for quantum satis meaning the amount that is needed) sterile distilled water stirred up
to obtain a final volume of 50 µl. For example using 5 µl of a buffer without magnesium,
1µl of 10mM dNTPs and an optimized 4.0 mM (milliMolar) magnesium. 1µl of each µM
(microMolar) primers, 0.5 µl of 2ng/ µl template and 0.5 µl of polymerase would require
33 µl of sterile water. Only add Mg2Cl if it is not present in the 10X buffer or if needed for
PCR optimization. Proceed to label the PCR tubes with an ethanol-resistant marker. To
each reaction tube, first add the calculated amounts of sterile water. Then add 10X
buffer and 10 mM dNTPs. For this reaction we are performing a titration with Mg2Cl.
Since the Mg concentration will not be constant, Mg2Cl is added to the PCR tubes
individually and the volume is normalized to 10µl with sterile water such that 40 µL of
the final Master Mix is added to each PCR tube to complete the 50µl reaction and
Mg2Cl. Continue to add the DNA template and primers. Finally add 0.5 to 2.5 units of
DNA polymerase per 50µl reaction.

4/ Basic PCR protocol : write the description by listening to the video

(4'22 until 5'11)

26
5/ Programming the thermal cycler : answer these comprehension questions (5'11
until 6'24)
a/ What are the 3 items that PCR thermal cyclers allow when they rapidly heat and cool
the reaction mixture ?

.............................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................
b/ What are cycling times based on ?

c/ What should you start with for the general formula ?

d/ Why should you program for optimal annealing of primers about 5°C below the
apparent melting temperature of the primers followed by the elongation step ?

e/ Fill in the following chronological set of actions :

Now...

Next...

Finally...

5/ Sum up what troubleshooting is as defined by the researcher (6'24 until 7'25):

27
6/ Fill in the gaps in the part Amplification of Gal3 (7'25 until the end)
Agarose gel 1_______________________ is then used to resolve PCR of the Gal3 gene
from genomic DNA of S. cerevisiae to 2_______________________ the optimal magnesium
3_______________________ concentration for this set of reagents. Note a PCR product
of the 4_______________________ size (2098 bp = based pairs) appears starting at a
magnesium concentration of 2.5 mM with an optimal concentration at 4mM. On different
DNA template, amplification of the desired PCR product as a
5_______________________ band requires 2 mM magnesium. Reducing the
6_______________________ of the reaction to effectively suboptimal amplification
conditions produces a smear of non specific products. Furthermore with the overall
7_______________________ of the reaction reduction, a lower
8_______________________ of magnesium iron is required to form an amplicon. Thus
optimizing PCR while being 9_______________________ of the
10_______________________ can produce the discreet desired product.

28
 Dealing with numbers and units
Microcarrier beads
Anchorage-dependent cell cultures are easy to
grow with these microcarrier beads. Microscopic
readings can be taken of these transparent beads.
They are shape-stable, so dried cells will not be
distorted. The surface area is 255 sq cm/gram of
microcarrier, which provides a large culture area
per litre of media. Microcarrier bead density is 1.05
g/cc; only minimal agitation is required to suspend
the beads. Particle diameter varies from 160 to 300
µm. Powder weight of beads is 0.63 g/cc.

 Note how numbers are written and read in English:

1,350 one thousand three hundred and fifty
45.73 forty-five point seven three
3.05 three point oh five
26% twenty-six percent
BEWARE : Decimals are indicated by a .(point) and not by a , (comma).
Reading mathematical symbols and fractions:
1 / 2 a half 2/3 two thirds
1 / 3 a third 5/8 five eighths
1 / 4 a quarter 3 / 4 three quarters
3 + 8 = 11 three plus eight equals eleven
16-5 sixteen minus five
8x2 eight times two
6÷2 six divided by two
50 kg/sq cm 50 kilograms per square centimeter
70 kph 70 kilometres per hour
2:3 two to three
A<B A is smaller (less) than B
A>B A is greater (more) than B

Practice : say the following in words:

a) 88÷7
b) 156-5
c) 2,547+ 18
d) P>A
e) C<B
f) 74 x 17
g) 9/4
h) 73%
i) 23,650
j) 1,200,000
k)1,000,000,000

29
 Keeping a lab notebook

1/The abbreviations and symbols below could all be

used in a scientist's lab notebook. What do they mean ?
Find out by matching them with the correct meanings.

a)  1. room temperature
b)
2. weight per volume
c) 3. without
d) @ 4. change
e) ~ 5. more or less (to show the deviation from the number
stated)
f) ± 6. energy
g) ∴ 7. increases
h) ∵ 8. about, approximately
i) 2: 1 9. concentration
j) conc. 10. volume$
11. per volume
k) E 12. at
l) RT 13. therefore
m) v/v 14. two to one ratio
n) w/ 15. with
o) w/o 16. decreases
p) w/v 17. leads to
q) ઢ 18. because

2/ Below is an extract from a final draft of a student's materials and methods

section, based on her lab notes. Complete each extract using the word in the
boxes :
actual aid and approximately average
due estimated evaporated length placed
ranged suspended to

A /The experiment investigated filling carbon nanotubes with a suspension

containing fluorescent beads. The tubes 1________________ in 2________________
from 20 3________________ 50µm and had an 4________________ diameter of
5________________500 nm and a wall thickness of 15nm. The tube diameters were
6________________ from electron microscope images and ranged between 300
7________________ 700nm. The 8________________ tube diameters may have been
smaller 9________________ to tube deformation.
The CNTs were then 10________________ in a 2-propanol solution and
11________________ on glass cover slips with the 12________________of
dielectrophoresis. The 2-propanol then 13________________.

30
 blending consisted covered filled laden ratio
with

B /A suspension was prepared by 14________________ ethylene glycol

15________________ a suspension of fluorescent polystyrene beads (1% weight
volume) in deionised water. The bead diameters ranged from 40 to 60 nm and the
suspension 16________________ of a 1 to 3 volume 17________________ of particle
suspension and ethylene glycol.
A liquid microdroplet, 18________________ with fluorescent polystyrene beads, was
placed at one end of the CNT with a glass micropipette. The drop 19________________
approximately 6µm of the CNT. The suspension 20________________ the CNT by
capillary action.

3/ What can you notice about the use of the passive/ active voice ?

4/ In pairs, write a paragraph for the materials and methods section in an

appropriate style for an experiment are working on or for an experiment you are
familiar with. It could be realistic or weird...

31
 LANGUAGE : Describing a process
The art of process description can be divided into a number of language functions :
1. Logical sequence of actions
2. Impersonality (use of passive as well as the active)
3. Reason (Why)
4. Purpose (What for)
5. Method (How)

Connectives and useful expressions:

1. Sequence of actions
Before until Then After/later
First/Firstly as Next Finally/In the end,

The first stage is during Secondly Eventually

The first step is while In the last stage
Beforehand when The last step is
Previously

Present tense (passive form) is the most frequent tense. Notice also the use of
Present perfect forms :
After/when the fibres have been separated, they are …..
After being centrifuged, the sample is subjected to further processing.
During the staining process
While the sample is stained…..
While being stained, the sample is….
Before the sample is stained…. / Before being stained, the tissue is…..

2. Reason –Why?
Because due to the fact that because of
Since as on account of
due to / owing to

Certain animals hibernate because of the extreme cold in winter.

Metals expand when heated on account of increased molecular activity. Leaves may
become brown due to the improper storage.
Three crops are possible owing to the hot climate.
Rainfall is higher as clouds are forced to rise and cannot hold so much water vapour.
This figure certainly seems consistent with recent political decisions as they affect the
progress of British science.
Leaves become brown in autumn due to the fact that waste products from the tree
are stored in them.
Many fruits become brightly coloured when ripe since this assists in seed dispersal.

32
3. Purpose – What for?
for + ing form of the verb
so that
in order to
so as to
with a view to + ing form of the verb
The temperature is decreased in order to allow settling.
The temperature is decreased for allowing/ with a view to allowing settling.
The temperature is decreased so that the substance can slowly start cooling.
The temperature is decreased in order to allow the substance start cooling.

4. Method – How?
for + ing form of the verb by + noun/noun phrase with + noun
using + noun
with the help of
e.g. by mixing the substance….
by filtration/by magnetic separation..
with a stirrer..using a stirrer..

PRACTICE : Use the information below to describe how blood is taken:

• Preparing the vials, needles and tampons
• Choosing a proper vein.
• Disinfecting the puncture.
• Applying the esmarch on the arm.
• Piercing the needle in the vein.
• Pushing the vial forward to collect blood
• Releasing the esmarch and filling the vial with blood
• Pressing the tampon on the piercing point.
• Discarding the used materials into a container
• Putting the sample on ice.

33
34
35
 Seven wonders of the microbe world

In pairs or on your own, choose one or several parts of the

documentary and write a short report paying particular
attention to linkwords.

Part 1 : History of Beer (0'00
3'32)

Part 2 : Black Death (3'32
7'52)

Part 3 : Food Preservation (7'52
11'14)

Part 4 : Nitrogen Fixation (11'14
14'23)

Part 5 : Antibiotics (14'23
18'34)

Part 6 : Genetic Engineering (18'34
21'51)

Part 7 : Life on Mars (21'51
end)

36
 According to your area of study, pick an article from the New Scientist and
do the following tasks :
 read it through and check your comprehension (this could be done in pairs)
 sum it up
 write a personal opinion on the topic
 hand it back to your teacher (either handwritten or typed)
You can use some of the phrases in the "Vocabulary for writing a summary
(based on reading or listening)" section.

Don't forget some regularly updated articles are freely available on the following
path with your UM's student's account :
Université de Montpellier
Bibliothèques
Revues Electroniques
type in : New Scientist

You could also choose a video from the mind-

blowing Ted's play list of the best science and
tech 2016
type in :
http://www.ted.com/playlists/456/best_science_a
nd_tech_of_2016

37
 Drop in Ebola cases may thwart drug and vaccine trials
New Scientist. 2/14/2015, Vol. 225 Issue 3008, p1-1
The steep fall in new Ebola cases is good news - but it makes it difficult to
run trials of the new drugs and vaccines that might prevent the next outbreak
We may have lost a historic chance to test drugs and vaccines against
the Ebola virus, which could leave us without the weapons to prevent the next outbreak.
The epidemic in West Africa prompted an unprecedented rush of clinical trials.
But some are now being abandoned and others may produce few clear results, because
the Ebola makes it difficult to test whether the drugs work in enough cases for
statistically valid trials.
The fall in cases means the epidemic is entering a new, difficult phase. Last week,
the number of people with Ebola rebounded across the affected region for the first time
this year, possibly because controls were relaxed too soon. Until every last case is
contained, the UN warns that another massive flare-up is a real risk.
No one is complaining that last year's exponential rise in Ebola cases did not continue.
David Fisman of the University of Toronto, Canada, says something
slowed disease transmission in November, possibly ordinary people taking more
precautions. Factoring that into epidemic models "nicely predicts" what is happening
now, he says. "We think the epidemic is peaking now, or peaked in mid-January. We
project around 35,000 reported cases in total" -- far short of the million feared in
September.
But there is a downside. It has never been possible to test treatments for Ebola in
humans as outbreaks were small and over too fast. This time, clinical trials have begun,
but may not be completed because of the decrease in cases. US firm Chimerix
has Ebola trials for the drug brincidofovir, after case numbers in Liberia fell. Meanwhile,
preliminary results were leaked last week from trials of the drug favipiravir, owned by
Japan's Fujifilm. Death rates among patients with "low to moderate" levels of the virus
fell from 30 to 15 per cent, said reports -- but the sample size is too small to draw a
conclusion, says Annick Antierens of Médecins Sans Frontières. It is also not clear
whether the patients were in the early stages of Ebola, or recovering. The full study will
be released later this month.
Lack of numbers could also stymie vaccine giants Merck and GlaxoSmithKline, which
last week started giving one of their two experimental Ebola vaccines or a control
vaccine to 30,000 volunteers -- who will then be watched for Ebola. The decline in
cases means the trial may never reach a conclusion, says GSK spokeswoman Aoife
Pauley.
The irony of defeating Ebola just in time to prevent tests that could stop the next
epidemic is not lost on researchers. The trials were designed and approved in months
rather than the years it usually takes -- but that's still not soon enough, says Jake
Dunning of Imperial College London, who hopes to launch a trial of an RNA-based anti-
Ebola drug in Sierra Leone next week.
We may be left with aborted trials and scattered observations of the handful of drugs
that have been tried on patients, he says -- and they cannot prove whether any
treatment will protect us when Ebola explodes again.
~~~~~~~~
By Debora MacKenzie

38
 US-Cuba thaw may yield cancer drugs
New Scientist. 9/19/2015, Vol. 227 Issue 3039, p10-10..
Cuba has a unique relationship with tobacco. Cigars are the country's national
product and tobacco generates an annual income of between $400 and $500 million. If you've
ever walked down the Malecôn of an evening, Havana's iconic waterfront promenade, you can't
fail to have noticed the scores of young people pulling on cheap cigarettes in the sea breeze.
It still strikes me as odd when I see people smoking inside public buildings, and it isn't
frowned upon to light up at your desk in most Cuban workplaces. And therein lies the problem.
Cancer is the second biggest cause of death in Cuba, after cardiovascular disease, and lung
cancer rates are among the highest in the region, according to the World Health Organization.
But Cuban researchers are helping lead the fight against the disease. They recently
added a new weapon to the arsenal against lung cancer: Cimavax. This vaccine -- designed to
be given to people with cancer -- encourages the immune system to attack a protein that fuels
tumour growth, slowing the disease's spread.
"The basic idea is to mobilise the immune system so the components which typically
defend you are able to fight the cancer cells growing inside the body," says Kaleb Leon, director
of investigation and research at the Center of Molecular Immunology (CIM) in Havana, where
the drug was developed.
There is one key reason why Cuba punches above its weight in the medical research
arena: research and treatment are tightly connected in the Cuban healthcare system. Writing in
the journal PNAS earlier this year, a group of US neuroscientists including Mark Cohen of the
University of California, Los Angeles, noted the benefits of this "two-way communication
between the lay public and research scientists in the cause of public health" (doi.org/7qc). They
cited large-scale population studies which "routinely achieve more than 95 per cent enrolment
success".
Partly because of this connection, the team at CIM has made significant progress with
clinical trials of Cimavax. Pooled results from phase I and II clinical trials showed that those
vaccinated survived for 11 months on average, while the survival rate in a control group was
four to five months (Human Vaccines, doi.org/dbgtw9).
And the work has attracted international interest. On his recent trade visit to the island, Andrew
Cuomo, Governor of New York, brought representatives from Roswell Park Cancer Institute in
Buffalo. They have now signed an agreement with CIM to further test and develop Cimavax in
the US.
Leon is clearly proud of his team's achievements as he guides me around the national
immunology lab, housed in a modernist building on the outskirts of Havana.
"Roswell Park has been in touch with us for about three years now," he says. "The plan
is to start a phase I clinical trial there at the end of this year."
But he admits it hasn't been easy. For over five decades, the US government has
maintained an economic and diplomatic embargo on communist-run Cuba, which has made it
almost impossible for researchers in the two nations to work together.
This year's PNAS article emphasised the benefits to the US of closer cooperation.
Scientists in Havana, too, are aware that they would benefit from further detente.
"In many different senses this weird relationship we have with the US has caused
problems for us," says Leon. The US forbids third nations from selling equipment containing US-
made components to Cuba, for example.
But 2015 has seen quite a turnaround for these cold war enemies, including a face-to-
face meeting between presidents Obama and Castro, diplomatic ties re-established and
embassies reopened. If the thaw is to last, however, it must take hold in arenas beyond
diplomacy. Cancer patients on both sides of the Straits of Florida will hope biomedical research
can benefit from this new-found spirit of cooperation.
~~~~~~~~
By Will Grant, Havana

39
 Immune reset aids kidney transplants
New Scientist. 4/5/2014, Vol. 221 Issue 2963, p14-14

There's a better way to deal with rejection. People who have received a donor
organ need to take a host of toxic drugs to stop their immune system attacking it. Soon
they might just have their immune system rebooted -- making it accept the new organ.
The technique has been tried for the first time on 20 kidney transplant recipients.
Normally they would have to take up to 20 drugs daily, with a risk of developing kidney
failure or cancer, as well as side effects such as bloating and diarrhoea. The group took
part in a trial led by Allan Kirk of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. He reset their
immune system so that it tolerates their new kidney. Seven of them now need only a
single injection each month. The other 13 have the injection plus one daily pill
(American Journal of Transplantation, doi.org/r5j).
Transplant surgeons have hailed it as a watershed. "I think it will be a big stride
forward, getting tolerance for solid organs," says Roy Calne, who pioneered
simultaneous transplants of multiple organs. "Most of all, it's a big advance in comfort
for the patients."
The treatment developed by Kirk's team has three main components. The first is
a drug called alemtuzumab, given intravenously during the transplant surgery. It wipes
out the white blood cells, or lymphocytes, that would otherwise attack the new organ.
Lymphocyte numbers recover over the following 12 to 18 months, but these cells
accept the kidney as "self" rather than foreign tissue. "It hits the reset button for the
immune system," says Kirk.
A second drug called belatacept encourages the new white blood cells not to
reject the organ. Injections of the drug are frequent at first, but become monthly six
months after the transplant. Finally, the patients receive a daily pill of a mild immune
suppressant called sirolimus. It mops up any older lymphocytes that survived the dose
of alemtuzumab.
A year after surgery, no one in the group had symptoms of organ rejection or any
need to take the standard post-transplant drugs. At this point, Kirk asked 10 of them if
they wanted to stop taking sirolimus. All but three did so. Now these seven people have
monthly injections of belatacept alone. Three-and-a-hall 20 .
Since this first trial, Kirk has treated another 18 kidney transplant recipients, who
are now being weaned off sirolimus. He is also planning a much larger trial, to start next
month. Ultimately, Kirk hopes it will be possible to tweak the treatment so that even
belatacept is unnecessary. He tried taking two people off it, but had to restore the drug
after hints of rejection. He also hopes to try the treatment in other organ transplants. He
is confident the effects will be lasting, as even people on belatacept alone haven't
produced antibodies that would attack their new kidney. What's more, a potential
stumbling block over the cost of the treatment has been overcome
Calne says Kirk's approach is the mildest and most practical attempt so far to
"tolerise" the body to transplanted organs. "Many are much harsher, involving body
irradiation for example, or multiple injections of drugs. None have been anything like as
successful."
~~~~~~~~
By Andy Coghlan

40
 Cancer's path depends on mutation order.
New Scientist. 2/21/2015, Vol. 255 Issue 3009, p1-1

A blood disorder study shows for the first time that the order in which mutations occur
affects how a disease develops, and the best way to treat it
It is well known that cancers can develop from mutations in DNA - but now we've seen
for the first time that a person's fate may depend on the order in which they occur.
In every cancer, there are hundreds of mutations, but some have more of an effect on the
disease than others. It has now been shown that a cancer's path changes depending on which
of these "driver mutations" comes first. This affects how the cancer develops, and which
treatments are likely to work best.
This finding comes from an analysis of blood samples from 246 people with blood
disorders called myeloproliferative neoplasms, which develop into leukaemia in about 5 to 10
per cent of cases. Researchers had access to samples from both early and later stages of the
disease, enabling them to see the order in which key mutations appeared in affected blood cells.
"It's the first time we've been able to show that the order impacts both the clinical and
biological features of the disease," says David Kent of the Cambridge Institute for Medical
Research in the UK, and a lead author of the study (The New England Journal of Medicine,
doi.org/z9f). "Before, we didn't know that order mattered."
Kent and his colleagues focused on mutations in two genes already known to be critical
for development of this type of pre-leukaemia. A mutated JAK2 gene sends production of red
blood cells and platelets into overdrive. TET2 normally helps kill abnormal stem cells, but when
it mutates, unhealthy cells slowly build up in the bone marrow.
A tenth of the initial 246 blood samples had both mutations. Of these, the team identified
12 samples in which TET2 had unequivocally mutated first, and another 12 in which the JAK2
mutation came first.
By taking further samples from these people and tracking their symptoms, they were
able to show that the disease took a different trajectory depending on which mutation came first.
They found that disease was noticeable 10 years earlier in people with JAK2-first mutations,
because they were overproducing blood cells at high levels from the outset. In cell culture, these
mutants were easier to kill with targeted JAK2 inhibitor drugs than cells from those with TET2-
first mutations, but Kent's team has yet to test that this is also true inside the human body.
By contrast, the disease was more hidden in those who developed TET2 mutations first
and was more likely to develop into full-blown leukaemia, but people in this group were less
likely to suffer or die from blood clots than those who developed JAK2 mutations first. "It's not a
case of one being milder than the other, but that they drive disease in different directions," says
Kent.
"This is a landmark study," says Charles Swanton of Cancer Research UK's London
Research Institute. "It's the first to conclusively demonstrate that the order in which two driver
events occur influences the subsequent evolution of the tumour, the underlying biological
behaviour, type of disorder and clinical presentation of the disease," he says.
If the effects of mutation order were established for all common cancers, it could have a
dramatic impact on treatment, says Kent. Doing this is likely to be easiest for cancers for which
regular early biopsies are taken, such as breast and prostate cancer.
"We hope that our study will stimulate the search in other cancers for whether or not the
order of mutation acquisition matters," he says. "It's the first time we've shown that order
impacts the clinical and biological features of the disease"
~~~~~~~~
By Dean Hamer

41
 Catch cancer as it spreads with a trap
New Scientist. 9/12/2015, Vol. 227 Issue 3038, p14-14.

The trouble with cancer is it spreads - sometimes even before someone knows
they are ill. A small implant that traps cancer cells as they migrate through the blood
could make a lifesaving early-detection system.
"This could be the canary in the coal mine," says Lonnie Shea of the University of
Michigan at Ann Arbor, one of the developers.
So far the idea has been tested in mice. If it translates to people, then the implant
could be scanned for cancer cells while still inside the body - either by doctors, or one
day perhaps just with a smartphone. "That's the fantasy," says Shea.
Shea devised the approach along with Jacqueline Jeruss, a breast cancer
surgeon. Jeruss had noticed how common it was for her patients' first symptom to be
breath lessness - as the cancer had already spread to their lungs.
They and their colleagues devised an implant made from an inert porous material
already used in medical devices, and loaded it with a signalling molecule called CCL22.
This attracts certain immune cells, which encourages cancer cells to follow suit.
They implanted the device under the skin of mice with a version of breast cancer,
and found tumour cells in it after two weeks (Nature Communications, doi.0rg/7js). In
experiments on other mice, the team showed that cancer cells could be detected in the
implant while it was still in place, via a new scanning system called optical coherence
tomography (OCT).
This technique, which can penetrate living tissue by a few millimetres, involves
measuring the way light is scattered off large molecules and structures inside cells.
Cancer cells can be detected because they are denser internally. Various firms are
developing devices that would let OCT be done with a smartphone.
In mice, the implants cut the number of tumour cells that migrated to secondary
sites like the lungs. They probably wouldn't trap enough cells to work as an anticancer
therapy, says Shea, but the implant could boost people's chances of survival by
identifying early on that cancer cells are on the move - allowing the patient to begin
chemotherapy right away.
The main challenge, says Shea, will be getting the OCT scanner to penetrate
human skin, which is thicker than rodent skin.
Other groups are investigating tumour traps that attract certain types of cancer
cells via different, more specific, chemical signals. The new implant should in theory
attract a wide range of cancer cells - although so far the team have only shown it works
for one tumour type other than breast cancer, in unpublished work.
They envisage first using the trap in women at a high risk of breast cancer, such
as those who have already had surgery to remove a tumour and might experience a
recurrence. If a scan reveals that cancer cells are present, the implant could even be
removed and the cells analysed to see which drugs they are most susceptible to.
Gerhardt Attard of the Institute of Cancer Research in London says there is
growing interest in personalising treatments by testing cancer cells in the blood. "This
could be a very powerful way of risk stratifying patients for treatment," he says.
~~~~~~~~by Clare Wilson

42
 Sentinel at the gates of addiction
Denise Kandel is a professor of sociomedical sciences at Columbia University's Mailman
School of Public Health in New York City. For 50 years she has explored risk factors for
drug use and addiction.

It's the 40th anniversary of the gateway drug theory. What led you to propose it?
There had been a large increase in the use of marijuana in the 1970s. I was funded to do
a project focused solely on marijuana, but I thought that it might also be interesting to look at
other drugs, so I slipped some questions about drinking and smoking into the interviews. Once I
started looking at the data, I realised that there were certain ages at which people tended to get
involved in different classes of drugs. They tended to start on cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana
at around ages 12 to 14. By doing cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of drug use, I found
the same pattern over and over again.
What was that pattern?
People started with legal drugs such as wine, beer and cigarettes, and some progressed
to marijuana. Then some moved on to cocaine, and then, perhaps, to heroin. Of course, this
doesn't mean that just because you smoke cigarettes, you are going to become a heroin addict.
But it was -- it is -- a very compelling pattern. I proposed that cigarettes and alcohol were
gateways to the use of illegal drugs. This created a lot of controversy.
You finally put your theory to the test last year in a collaboration with your husband,
neuroscientist and Nobel laureate Eric Kandel. How did that come about ?
For years, I'd suggested that a rodent model was needed to better understand what
might be driving this pattern. Then, a decade ago, I was invited to go to a meeting in Prague
organised by the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, so I asked my husband if he
would like to come. He said yes, and when I told the organisers, they asked if he would give a
basic science lecture. He had done some work on cocaine -- nothing to do with the gateway
theory -- and he talked about that. After his lecture, I said, "You know, Eric, I think we should do
something in mice looking at the impact of nicotine on the response to cocaine." That was how it
started. If we hadn't gone to the meeting together, if he hadn't given that lecture, it might never
have happened.
You found a strong neurological basis for the gateway effect. Were you surprised?
As I said, I didn't think that the pattern of use was random. But testing the idea
empirically in humans was a challenge. You can't propose a study where you say, "I am going
to present cigarettes and cocaine, in different orders, to a group of kids to see if they are more
or less likely to want to snort cocaine after having tried cigarettes." But you can do something
along those lines in mice.
When we did that study -- and we looked at the behaviour, the neurobiology and the
molecular biology -- we found a strong gateway effect: when you primed a mouse with nicotine
and then exposed it to cocaine, the effects of cocaine were enhanced. We saw more addiction-
like behaviours in those mice, and my husband's laboratory saw changes at the molecular level.
What sort of brain changes emerged?
Just one example is that nicotine enhances the expression of FosB, a gene involved in reward.
Such changes make the brain more receptive to experiencing the rewards of another drug.
What surprised us was that this effect was completely unidirectional: when we did the reverse
and primed the mice with cocaine and then introduced them to nicotine, there was no effect on
nicotine at all, either in behaviour or at the molecular level (NEJM, vol 371, p 932).

43
Were there any other surprises?
Yes, another unanticipated finding in our mouse data was that we only saw the gateway effect
when exposures were overlapping -- when mice were primed with nicotine and then had at least
one day where they were exposed to both nicotine and cocaine. This suggested that people
have to be actively smoking when they start using cocaine for these brain changes to occur.
I went back and re-examined the epidemiological data and found that, in the overwhelming
majority of cases, young people were actively smoking when they started using cocaine. And
the rate of addiction was twice as high among those who were smoking when they started using
cocaine as among those who were not smoking at the time.
It sounds like a fertile marriage of two very different disciplines…
The work exemplifies how you can move from epidemiology to the biology lab and back again.
The two fields have a lot to offer one another -- if scientists are open to it.
E-cigarettes and vaping are gaining popularity, touted as "safe" alternatives to smoking.
What are your thoughts on this?
It is a controversial topic. You need to keep in mind that there are two types of e-cigarette
consumers: people trying to stop smoking, and young people trying something new.
If you're an established smoker, vaping might be a safer alternative because you aren't exposed
to all the carcinogens that cigarettes produce. But e-cigarettes are unregulated and may contain
all kinds of compounds and chemicals that we do not know about.
Perhaps most importantly, the current safety discussions in the medical community emphasise
the effects of these products on the lungs and heart. People aren't talking about effects on the
brain. Our work suggests this is important. Nicotine is nicotine, whether from a cigarette or an e-
cigarette. And when it gets into the brain, especially the adolescent brain, there are negative
consequences.
We are learning that the rates of use of e-cigarettes are growing dramatically, especially among
young people. What is driving that? The science is not keeping up with rapidly changing
behaviour.
Your initial work on the gateway theory also suggested that marijuana is a gateway drug.
Over the years, people tended to focus on marijuana being the gateway drug, the substance
that would ultimately lead you to cocaine or heroin. Indeed, that link does not appear to have
weakened over time -- but that wasn't exactly what I was saying. My research described a link
from tobacco or alcohol to marijuana, and then from marijuana to cocaine. The connection
between alcohol and cocaine, and between cigarettes and cocaine, is extremely strong.
How might your new work translate into public health measures to tackle drug use and
addiction?
Drug addiction stems from a constellation of factors. We know that genes are important, and so
is environment. If you are susceptible to becoming addicted, then it isn't safe to use any drugs.
We have known for a long time that you have to start any intervention early for it to be
successful. Our work provides a strong rationale for doing so. If you can get young people to not
use tobacco or other substances, if you can educate them about the effects on the brain, you
can reduce the risk -- and, with luck, make a difference.
"People aren't talking about effects of e-cigarettes on the brain, but it's important"

~~~~~~~~
Interview by Kayt Sukel

44
 A stable mind is a conscious mind
New Scientist. 4/11/2015, Vol. 226 Issue 3016, p1-1. 1p.
Hold that thought. When it comes to consciousness, the brain may be doing just that. It
now seems that conscious perception requires brain activity to hold steady for hundreds of
milliseconds. This signature in the pattern of brainwaves can be used to distinguish between
levels of impaired consciousness in people with brain injury.
The new study by doesn't explain the so-called "hard problem of consciousness" - how
roughly a kilogram of nerve cells is responsible for the miasma of sensations, thoughts and
emotions that make up our mental experience. However, it does chip away at it, and support the
idea that it may one day be explained in terms of how the brain processes information.
Neuroscientists think that consciousness requires neurons to fire in such a way that they
produce a stable pattern of brain activity. The exact pattern will depend on what the sensory
information is, but once information has been processed, the idea is that the brain should hold a
pattern steady for a short period of time - almost as if it needs a moment to read out the
information.
In 2009, Schurger tested this theory by scanning 12 people's brains with fMRI machines.
The volunteers were shown two images simultaneously, one for each eye. One eye saw a red-
on-green line drawing and the other eye saw green-on-red. This confusion caused the
volunteers to sometimes consciously perceive the drawing and sometimes not.
When people reported seeing the drawing, the scans, on average, showed their brain
activity was stable. When they said they didn't see anything, it was more variable. Now,
Schurger and colleagues have repeated the experiment - using electroencephalography and
magnetoencephalography, which measure the electrical and magnetic fields generated by brain
activity. These techniques provide greater temporal resolution than fMRI, allowing the team to
see how the pattern of activity changes over milliseconds within a single brain. Based on their
earlier work, the team expected the volunteers' brain activity to stabilise and stay that way for
hundreds of milliseconds when they reported having seen the drawing, but become highly
variable otherwise. "This was borne out really, really nicely in the data," says Schurger.
The team then tested their technique in 116 people with disorders of consciousness. The
patients, who were either minimally conscious, in a vegetative state or had just recovered from
coma, were played a tone while their brain activity was recorded. The ability of their brains to
converge on a stable state correlated with their clinical diagnosis: the more conscious the
patient, the greater the stability. "The stability of their brain's response to an auditory beep is an
indicator of their state of consciousness," says Schurger.
Neurologist Steven Laureys of the University of Liège in Belgium thinks the work is
significant. "The challenge is to translate this into real clinical practice, by cross-validating this
new test with other measures. This is terribly important in a field where we have no gold
standard of consciousness," he says.
The work augments the global neuronal workspace theory of consciousness - which
argues that a number of brain regions erupt in synchronous activity when people report being
conscious of something. The findings support the idea that this synchronous activity should
remain stable for a few hundred milliseconds. Michael Graziano of Princeton University is also
impressed. "Somehow, processes in the brain lead us to report that we have conscious
experiences. What are those processes? How do they occur? This study is a beautiful example
of pinning down the speculation with data," he says.
However, it doesn't directly address the hard problem of consciousness. Many
neuroscientists, including Graziano, think that the hard problem is an illusion, one that will go
away as we better understand the brain. "There is no hard problem," says Graziano. "There is
only the question of how the brain, an information-processing device, concludes and insists it
has consciousness. And that is a problem of information processing. To understand that
process fully will require the kinds of stepwise experiments you see here."
~~~~~~~~ By Anil Ananthaswamy

45
 No neutral gear for the sleep-deprived
New Scientist. 10/3/2015, Vol. 228 Issue 3041, p14-14
DARK puffy eyes, a feeling of deep exhaustion, and a foul mood to match -- all of
us have experienced the side effects of a lack of sleep. But exactly why sleep is so
important for our well-being remains a mystery.
Talma Hendler of Tel Aviv University in Israel is particularly interested in how
being short of sleep leaves us with a short fuse. "We know that sleep affects our
emotional behaviour, but we don't know how," she says.
To investigate, Hendler and her colleagues kept 18 adults awake all night. "It took
a great effort," she says. "During the night, we repeatedly measured their sleepiness,
and unsurprisingly they got more and more tired."
The volunteers had to perform tests, both the day after a good night's sleep and
after being awake for 24 hours. In one test, they saw yellow dots moving on a screen
and had to state their direction. The dots were laid over a potentially distracting picture
classed as either "positively emotional" (of a kitten, for example), "negatively emotional"
(such as a snake) or neutral (such as a spoon).
When the volunteers were well rested, they performed quickest and most
accurately when the background image was neutral. But after a sleepless night, they did
just as poorly whether neutral or emotional images were used.
That might simply be because lack of sleep impairs judgement, but it's also
possible that something more subtle is at work -- that it makes us respond emotionally
even to neutral images, says Hendler.
To probe the mechanism in more detail, her team conducted a similar experiment
with participants in an fMRI scanner to measure their brain activity. They found that
when the volunteers had had a good night's sleep, a region called the amygdala --
which plays a part in emotion -- fired up only in response to the emotional images. But
when they were sleep-deprived, it reacted to neutral images as well.
The team also found unusual activity in a part of the brain called the anterior
cingulate cortex (ACC), which is thought to regulate the amygdala and our emotions. In
well-rested people, the two brain regions fired together. But they seemed out of sync
when the volunteers were sleep-deprived (Journal of Neuroscience, doi.org/7xj).
Together, the experiments suggest that when we are starved of sleep, we tend to
see everyday situations as more worthy of attention than normal, says Hendler. "You
lose neutrality," she says. "It's as if everything is important."
There is one obvious way to protect yourself from the effects of sleep loss: get
enough shut-eye. Hendler thinks people might also be able to improve coordination
between the ACC and amygdala using neurofeedback -- a technique that uses brain-
monitoring technology to allow people to watch and attempt to control their own brain
activity.
But Mary Carskadon at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, is
unconvinced by such interventions. "Despite wishes some have to the contrary, we all
need sleep," she says. "I don't want to stimulate the activity between my amygdala and
frontal cortex -- I want to get plenty of sleep."

~~~~~~~~
By Jessica Hamzelou

46
 Can a DNA test reveal sexuality?

New Scientist. 10/17/2015, Vol. 228 Issue 3043, p12-12.

The idea of telling if someone is gay or straight from their DNA is highly
provocative. So no surprise that a study entitled "A novel predictive model of sexual
orientation using epigenetic markers" has caused a big stir.
Focusing on genetic testing may attract attention, but as a scientist long
interested in the role of the genome in sexuality, I am more intrigued by what the work
tells us about the role of epigenetic imprinting -- the silencing of genes by methylation.
This imprint can pass from parent to child and has implications for a range of complex
human traits.
The first DNA markers for sexual orientation date back to 1993, when my lab at
the US National Institutes of Health found an area on the X chromosome -- Xq28 -- that
influences sexuality in gay brothers. Earlier this year, that finding was robustly
confirmed in a study 10 times the size.
Despite such work, it was clear that inherited differences in DNA could not
account for all of the observed variation in sexual orientation. That led me and graduate
student Sven Bocklandt to hypothesise in 2003 that epigenetics may play a role. We
illustrated this by suggesting how atypical imprinting of the X chromosome could lead to
failure to inactivate feminising genes or activate masculinising ones, resulting in same-
sex attraction in males. It could not be tested at the time, but some evidence came from
X chromosome methylation patterns in mothers of gay men.
Bocklandt later headed to the University of California, Los Angeles, and tested
imprinting directly by comparing the entire genome's epigenetic marks in male identical
twins of whom one was gay and one straight. He looked at 30,000 methylation sites in
all, but though several correlations turned up, this could not be repeated.
The latest study by Tuck Ngun, also at UCLA, scans 4 million potential
methylation points (see " 'I quit': concern over gay genetics", below). Five were identified
which, together, could classify the sexual orientation of 37 gay/straight twin pairs with 67
per cent accuracy. Ngun sent an abstract based on preliminary data to the American
Society of Human Genetics, hoping for feedback at its conference last week.
The society issued its own press release about the work to major media, and not
surprisingly there were soon headlines about the new "gay gene test" and concerns
about abuses, such as elimination of homosexuality via abortion. Some of the coverage
created misconceptions that need correcting. Firstly, Ngun's work does not amount to a
sexual orientation test. Even if it can be replicated in more twins with highly correlated
methylation patterns, it is unlikely to work in unrelated members of the public.
What's more, the study doesn't discount the idea of genes directly influencing
sexuality. There is room for genes and imprinting, and in fact they may synergise. That
means epigenetics may only make a difference when combined with a certain genetic
background. Finally, such work won't worsen homophobia. People who understand the
role of biology in sexuality are more likely to be accepting and inclusive.
I hope Ngun's findings will stimulate more research. My fear is that the furore
stirred up will inhibit it. That would be a pity, because sexual orientation is one of the
most fundamental and fascinating variations in humanity that we can study.

47
'I QUIT': CONCERN OVER GAY GENETICS
The scientist behind the latest study looking at how genetics might influence
sexuality has abandoned research in the field.
Tuck Ngun of the University of California, Los Angeles, is concerned his work
could be misinterpreted by those who seek to punish people for being gay. "I just left the
lab last week," he says. "I don't believe in the censoring of knowledge, but given the
potential for misuse of the information, it just didn't sit well with me." Ngun's work was
based on the idea that a male pregnancy might leave a marker that affects subsequent
pregnancies. This might be down to epigenetic changes -- which switch genes on and
off by adding or subtracting a methyl group.
He and his colleagues looked for epigenetic modifications made to the genes of
47 sets of male twins. Of the pairs, 37 were both gay while 10 pairs differed. Ngun's
team found five gene regions in which methylation patterns differed between gay and
straight brothers and used the results to develop a model that predicted sexuality with
67 per cent accuracy.
The study, presented at the American Society of Human Genetics annual
meeting last week, has been criticised on several fronts.
~~~~~~~~
By Dean Hamer

48
 Wasp uses virus to make GM butterfly
New Scientist. 9/26/2015, Vol. 227 Issue 3040, p1-1
If you thought genetic modification was just something humans did, think again. A
French team has found that the iconic monarch butterfly, famed for its long migrations,
has wasp genes in its genome.
The monarch is not alone. Wasp genes have been found in several butterfly and
moth species, inserted by viruses that the wasps use as biological weapons.
There are numerous species of parasitic wasp that lay their eggs in caterpillars.
When the larvae hatch they feed on the caterpillar's body, and the wasps have evolved
a truly extraordinary way of subduing the caterpillar's immune system to stop it attacking
their offspring. The female produces millions of virus-like particles in its ovaries and
injects these into the caterpillar along with an egg. The viruses invade almost every type
of cell in the caterpillar's body, and their DNA gets integrated into its genome. Normal
viruses carry genes for the proteins they need to replicate. But bracoviruses, as they are
called, are different. They carry genes, some of which come originally from the wasp,
that turn off the caterpillar's immune defences and render it helpless against the wasp
larva.
Bracoviruses can no longer replicate themselves: instead, the genes for making
them have become incorporated into the wasp genome, a discovery made in 2009 by a
team led by Jean-Michel Drezen, now at François Rabelais University in Tours, France.
In other words, over the past 100 million years, wasps have tamed once free-
living viruses and turned them into sophisticated biological weapons. There are now
thousands of species of braconid wasp, each of which lays eggs in a specific butterfly or
moth species and produces a unique bracovirus.
Sometimes, though, a wasp lays an egg in the wrong host, in which case its larva
may not survive. But the bracoviruses still get into the caterpillar, and can find their way
into the genome of developing egg or sperm cells. They will then be passed down to the
insect's offspring and can become a permanent part of its genome.
Drezen's team has now shown that this has happened on several occasions.
Along with the monarch butterfly, they have found DNA derived from wasps in
silkworms and two kinds of armyworm moth (PLoS Genetics, doi.org/7r2). This is just
the tip of the iceberg, Drezen thinks. But is this really evidence of "naturally occurring
GM butterflies", as Drezen's team claims? In the widest sense of the term, every
organism is genetically altered, as random mutations in our cells happen throughout our
lives.
By genetically modified, though, Drezen is really saying that the butterflies are
transgenic: meaning they have acquired genes from completely different species. Much
of the opposition to transgenic crops and animals stems from the idea that this kind of
interspecies gene swapping is unnatural and dangerous.
But it has turned out to be widespread in nature. The sweet potato acquired DNA
from a gene-meddling bacterium as recently as 10,000 years ago, and even humans
have acquired dozens of genes this way in just the past few million years.
So even in the more limited transgenic sense, just about every organism can still be
described as genetically modified. "I must confess I can't say that is not true," Drezen
says. The description was a way to attract interest, he admits. "And it's worked."
~~~~~~~~
By Michael Le Page

49
 Baby's genes mapped at birth

New Scientist. 4/11/2015, Vol. 226 Issue 3016, p1-1

If you could gaze into a crystal ball and discover whether your newborn baby
might have health problems, would you want to know? This month, doctors in Boston
will begin sequencing the genomes of healthy babies for the first time to explore the
benefits and risks of sequencing at birth.
"We've been at an impasse for the last few years - we've had the technology to
deliver information about future health, but we've not been able to use it because of all
the issues around it," says Robert Green of Harvard Medical School, who is conducting
the BabySeq project alongside Alan Beggs at Boston Children's Hospital.
Pregnant women already have blood tests to assess their risk of passing on
certain genetic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis. Those at high risk may choose to have
further tests, such as amniocentesis, to determine if their unborn child has chromosomal
abnormalities. But we're on the cusp of knowing so much more.
In 2012, two groups showed that it is possible to sequence a entire genome
using fetal DNA circulating in the mother's blood. While this is still some way from being
used in the clinic, whole genome sequencing at birth is not. "Despite the well-
recognised limitations in the predictive value of sequencing, there are many companies
out there that feel they could be offering newborn sequencing right now," says Green.
"We felt it was our scientific responsibility to begin this kind of sequencing so if harms
do occur we are available to mitigate them and have an understanding of them, before it
is launched unmonitored on an unsuspecting public." When babies are born, a spot of
blood is routinely taken from their heel and analysed for signs of up to 30 treatable
diseases. In the BabySeq project, 240 healthy babies born at the Brigham and Women's
hospital in Boston, and 240 babies in intensive care at Boston Children's hospital will
have their genome sequenced alongside the heel prick test, or have the heel prick test
alone.
The team will carry out whole genome sequencing, looking at 1700 protein-
coding genes that are strongly associated with diseases that begin in childhood. This
could include Usher syndrome, which causes deafness and gradual vision loss. They
will also be looking for mutations linked to diseases that occur in older children or adults
that can be mitigated in childhood, such as familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) in
which polyps grow in the colon and eventually turn cancerous. And they will hunt for
genes associated with incurable childhood conditions, such as Rett syndrome, where
advance warning should mean parents are better prepared. At the moment, a healthy
baby would not be screened for any of these conditions unless there was a family
history of the disorder.
The results of the analysis will be summarised and explained to parents by a
geneticist and a genetic counsellor. The summary will also be given to the infant's
paediatrician and used to guide their medical care. For example, it might mean a child
with Usher syndrome is fitted with a cochlear implant earlier or a child with FAP has
regular checks for colon polyps. The team will monitor the child, parents and their
physician for at least five years.

50
 The team will not look for any gene mutations associated with adult diseases
such as Alzheimer's or breast cancer in their analysis. Parents will not have access to
their child's raw data unless they request it - which they can do at the end of the project.
"We are uncomfortable about releasing raw data as someone could analyse it
inappropriately," says Green. "But if the family insists, they can request it from the lab
who may release it after a discussion with the parents."
Might it be possible for a parent to later discover other traits about their child?
"They won't be able to discover much," says Robert Plomin, professor of behavioural
genetics at King's College London. "People will be told by companies 'yeah you can
predict intelligence and musical ability and sport', but you can't."
The genetic heritability of traits that we know most about are those for height and
weight, he says. "That could come in useful for predicting which of your kids might be
prone to obesity so you can keep an eye on their diet or lifestyle."
Plomin says that the rise of genetic sequencing in children is inevitable: "That's
what's good about this project - it's going to happen sometime, so let's see what the
problems are now in a randomised trial."
It's important to study the impact of genomic screening in a safe and controlled
manner, agrees Donna Dickenson, an emeritus professor of medical ethics at the
University of London. "Market forces are driving personalised medicine to a
considerable extent." Dickenson also highlights some of the ethical implications: is the
medical benefit to the child greater than the harm of removing the child's right to choose?
Might styles of parenting be affected?
"We know the questions that the world has about this issue, and we have to start
trying to answer them," says Green, "but we're not going to be able to do that by
speculating. We answer them by starting a project in a carefully monitored environment,
so that if something goes awry or causes unexpected distress, we are in a position to
say 'wait, stop, let's not go down this road', and then document the fact that it has
happened." "It's our responsibility to work out what harms may occur before it is
launched on an unsuspecting public"
"Is the medical benefit to the child greater than the harm of removing their right to
choose?"
~~~~~~~~
By Helen Thomson

51
52
 DEBATING
A CURRENT ISSUE

53
 What else?!

Skills required for a successful debate:

• Expressing and presenting an opinion

• Building arguments logically Listening to your
challenger's rebuttal
• Countering his/her arguments taking into account what
seems acceptable in his/her position

Remember that the ultimate goal of each debate is to find a compromise after reaching
a “middle of the road” position.

This will also help you develop skills in the areas of interpersonal influence,
teambuilding, group problem solving.

You will choose a subject from the list submitted by your teacher. Groups will sign up on
a first come, first served basis, by specifying both the debate topic and the position
desired (i.e., for or against). Each participating member will receive an individual mark.

54
Choose the right item :

1/ I'm  in  of  about the opinion that the government is fundamentally wrong…

2/ I  like  would  can to think that I'm more handsome than Tom…
3/ I  have  Ø  am convinced that this is the best option…
4/ I must  stress  focus  imagine that there are more important things to talk
about...
5/ Just to reiterate: I must say I am  opposite  contrary  against marriage
between cats and dogs...
6/  Who  Where  Which do you stand on abortion?
7/ Can we address the issue  at  of  on abortion?
8/ I  have agree  am agree  agree with what you're saying...
9/ You've got  a point  reason  right …
10/ I  look  observe  see your point …
11/ I'm all  with  for  in lower taxes...
12/ I  have  am  Ø pro women's rights...
13/ I'm afraid I  have to  to be  am disagree...
14/ I am not persuaded this is  the better  the good  the best option...
15/ As  much  more  better as I'd like to agree with you, I can't; it's
against my morals, it's against everything I believe...
16/ I can't agree  for  of  with that...
17/ I have to take  exit  leave  issue with that because I'm a democrat …
18/ I  have  am  be against fox hunting…
19/ I'm  anti  con  reverse war…
20/ Is it not therefore more  benefit  profit  beneficial to do it this way?
21/ The point that you make is  interest  interested  interesting but is
negated by the fact that your opinion is biased...
22/ Doesn't it make more  meaning  sense  logic to start the day at 12?
Who's with me?
23/ Have you  considered  observed  watched the risks?

55
II ORAL PRACTICE
Select a subject from the list provided and then follow the
instructions in Parts 1 and 2, using the appropriate vocabulary from
the bank of expressions:

1. Is health care a human right ?

2. Should marijuana be legalised for health purposes ?
3. France should increase tuition fees to improve the learning environment in
universities
4. The sale of human organs should be legalized.
5. The state should make vaccination compulsory.
6. Weareable health devices and fitness gadgets will make us healthier.
7. More wealth, more health or more wealth, less health ?
8. Brain research, including BCI (Brain Computer Interface) is unethical.
9. From bench to bedside : are animal models and clinical trials reliable ?

56
 AGREEING & DISAGREEING : Bank of expressions

Asking for an Opinion What’s your opinion of…?

What’s your position on…?
I’d like to hear your views on….

Introducing To begin with, as an introduction, first and

foremost

Reformulating What did you mean when you said that….?

You made a good point when you said that….

Summarizing To summarize, I think we are in agreement

on…
Briefly, the main points that have been made
are…
In short,…..
Giving An Opinion
o Strong Agreement: I completely agree.
I’m in total agreement.
It’s my belief/quite clear that….
o Neutral Agreement: I agree.
I think you’re right.
In my opinion…
o Partial Agreement: I would tend to agree with you on that.
It seems to me that….
By and large I would accept your views,
but…
o Softening Strong Disagreement: To be quite frank,…
With respect,…
I don’t share your point of view.
o Strong Disagreement: I totally disagree with you.
Under no circumstances could I agree to that.
o Softening Neutral Disagreement: I’m afraid…
I respect your opinion, of course, however…
o Neutral Disagreement: We’ll have to agree to differ.
I feel I must disagree.
I really must take issue with you here.
o Tactful Disagreement: You have a point there, but…
I can see your point of view, but surely…

Asking for a Reaction Could I ask for your reaction to….?

Where do you stand on this issue?
I wonder if you’d like to comment, Ms. Lang?

57
Bringing in to Answer a Question I’d like to ask my colleague to give her views
on that.
I think Mr. Doe is more qualified than I am to
deal with this question.

Bringing in to Present a Point Allow me to give the floor to Ms. Smith.

Mr. Jones, would you care to comment?

Debating Link Words and Phrases

o Adding information: besides, on top of that, furthermore, what’s

more, in addition to, not to mention, also
o Contrasting: but, yet, still, nevertheless, although,
whereas, despite, on the contrary, on the
other hand, in fact
o Justifying: that’s why, for example, because of, for
instance

Compromising

o Offering a Compromise: We are prepared to ….on condition that…

I believe we can…if…
o Asking if it’s Acceptable: Is that acceptable as a compromise solution?
We hope that this will be acceptable.
o Adding a Condition Positively: Our agreement is conditional on…
If you would be prepared to…, then we could…
o Adding a Condition Negatively: I don’t think we could….unless….
We have certain reservations about…and
unless…
o Accepting a Compromise: We see no objection to that.
I think that would be perfectly acceptable.
o Rejecting a Compromise: You leave us with little alternative but to…
You put us in a difficult position.

Playing for time

That's a very interesting question.

That's a difficult question to answer. I'm glad
you asked that question.
You have raised an important point there.
I'm sure you will appreciate how complicated
this matter is.

58
 Will declining funding stunt
scientific discovery in the U.S.?
1/ Explain who Loredana Quadro is :
Nationality

Educational Background :

Current Status :

Area of research :.

2/ Explain what the phrase "in jeopardy" means :

a/ in general :
b/ more specifically for Loredana :

3/ Why is there such cut throat competition between labs ?

4/ How does it undermine fundamental research according to the journalist ?

5/ Which paradox does Dr Francis Collins denounce ?

6/ Why could it be risky to let private institutions fund biomedical research ?

7/ What significant difference is ther between a junior and a senior investigator ?

8/ What is the immediate consequence on the present generation of research

scientists ?

9/ Is there any brain drain in the US ? And which global impact does it have ?

10/ Why is the example of the Human Genome Project inspiring ?

59
 Neuroscience Key Words

action potential experimental control

amygdala extracellular
arachnoid mater feedback loop
association cortex feed-forward network
audition frontal cortex
axon frontal lobe
axon terminal ganglion (plural = ganglia)
balance gap junction
bilayer glands
blood volume glutamate receptor
brainstem graded synaptic potential
carbohydrate gray matter
caudal growth cone
cell body gyrus (plural = gyri)
central nervous system hippocampus
cerebellum homeostasis
cerebral cortex hyperpolarize
cerebral hemispheres hypothalamus
chemotaxis inertia
circuit inhibitory neuron
CNS1 inhibitory post-synaptic potential
corpus callosum interneuron
cranial nerve intracellular
declarative memory ion channel
dendrite ionotropic
depolarize IPSP
disease of learning labyrinth
distal latency
dopamine lateral
dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons lobe
dura mater long-term memory
electrolytes lung
efferent medial
episodic memory membrane potential
EPSP2 memory, declarative
excitatory interneuron memory, episodic
excitatory neuron memory, procedural
memory, semantic
1
central nervous system consisting of the brain meninges
and spinal cord merkels discs
2 metabotropic
excitatory post-synaptic potential
metamorphosis

60
mnemonic post-synaptic neuron
motor cortex potassium (K+)
motor learning prefrontal cortex (PFC)
motor neuron pre-synaptic neuron
muscle fiber primacy effect
muscle spindle procedural memory
myelin pruning
myelinate proprioception
negative feedback proximal
nerve terminal purinergic receptor channels
nervous system Purkinje cells
neural circuit reaction time
neural pathway recall
neuroethics recency effect
neuromarketing receptor
neuromuscular junction recognition
neuron refractory period
neuron, excitatory / inhibitory / rostral
sensory semantic memory
neuron, motor sensation
neuron, post-synaptic short-term memory
neuron, pre-synaptic signal transduction pathways
neuronal circuit soma
neuronal network somatosensation
neurotransmitter spinal cord
nucleotide sprouting
nystagmus sulcus (plural = sulci)
occipital lobe synapse
olfactory bulb temporal lobe
optic chiasm thalamus
optic nerve thoracic
parietal lobe thorax
pathfinding threshold
period tract
peripheral variable
peripheral nervous system ventral
pH ventral horn
pia mater ventricle
pioneer axon vertigo
pituitary gland vestibular system
PNS vision
positive feedback visual cortex
posterior white matter

61
 Genetics Key Words

Allele
Antigen
Cell replication
Chloroplast
Crossing cytoplasm
daughter cells
Diploid
DNA chain
Dominant
Egg
Fertilization
Gamete
gene expression
Genetic recombination
Genetics
Genotype / genotypic
Haploid
Heredity
Heterozygous
Homologous chromosome
Homozygous
Hybrid
Law of independent assortment
Law of segregation
Meiosis
messenger RNA
Methylation
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
mitochondrion / a
Nondisjunction
offspring
Organelle DNA
Phenotype / phenotypic
Pollination
Pseudogene
Recessive
ribosomes
Sperm
Trait (inherited)
Zygote — diploid cell formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.

62
 Immunology Key Words

active immunity lymphocyte

adaptive immune system lysozyme
adenosine deaminase (ADA) macrophages
allergy major histocompatibility complex
antibody (MHC) molecules
antigen mast cells
antiretroviral drugs memory B and T cells
autoimmune disorders microglia
autoreactive molecular mimicry
B cell monoclonal antibodies
biochemicals mutation
biological barriers myelin
blood-brain barrier pandemic
blood-forming stem cells passive immunity
CD4+ helper T cells pathogen
central nervous system penicillin
clones phagocyte
cytokine plasma cell
dendritic cell protease
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) reassortment
DNA vaccine red blood cells
E. coli regulatory T cells (Treg cells)
enzymes replication
epidemic respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
estrogen retrovirus
genetic engineering reverse transcriptase (RT
granulocyte RNA (ribonucleic acid
highly active antiretroviral rotavirus.
therapy (HAART stem cell transplants
histamine steroids:
immune deficiency diseases (IDDs) subunit vaccines
immunoglobulin E (IgE) synapses
immunosuppressive T cell
inactivated vaccines tolerance
inflammation toxoid vaccine
innate immune system transgenic technology
killer T cell two-photon microscopy
knockout vaccine
latency vector vaccines
lymph nodes white blood cells

63
 Cancer Key Words
Benign
Biopsy
Bone marrow
Carcinoma
Cells
Chemoprevention
Chemotherapy
Chronic
Imaging test
In situ
Invasive cancer
Leukemia
Localized cancer
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic system
Lymphoma
Malignant
Mass
Metastasis
Oncologist /Oncology
Pathologist
Polyp
Precancerous
Predisposition
Primary cancer
Prognosis
Sarcoma
Screening
Secondary cancer
Stage
Tumor
Cancer Treatment Key Words
Adjuvant therapy
Bone marrow transplant
Chemotherapy
Clinical trial
Complementary medicine
Hormone therapy
Integrative medicine
Immunotherapy
Neoadjuvant therapy
Palliative care
Placebo
Protocol
Radiation therapy
Regimen
Standard of care
Surgery

64
 Clinical Trials Key Words

Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR) Demographic Data

Adverse Event (AE) Dental/Maxillofacial Surgery
Adverse Event Reports Dermatology/Plastic Surgery
Adverse Reaction Device
Advocacy and Support Groups Diagnostic Trials
Approved Drugs Disease
Baseline Documentation
Bias Dosage Regimen
Biotechnology Dose-Ranging Study
Blinding Double-Blind
Brand Name Drug Drug
Cardiology/Vascular Diseases Drug or Device Accountability
Case Report Form (CRF) Records (DAR)
Certified Research Coordinator Drug Product
(CCRC) Drug Safety and Monitoring Board
Clinical Development (DSMB)
Clinical Investigation / Clinical Drug-Drug Interaction
Investigator Effective Dose
Clinical Research Efficacy
Clinical Research Associate (CRA) Endocrinology
Clinical Research Coordinator (CRC) Endpoint
Clinical Study Materials Enrolling
Clinical Trial Epidemiology
Community-Based Clinical Trial Ethics Committee
(CBCT)
Exclusion Criteria
Compliance (In Relation to Clinical
Trials) Expanded Access
Confidentiality Agreement Experimental Drug
Consent Form Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Contract Research Organization Formulation
(CRO) Gastroenterology
Contraindication Generic Drug
Control Group Good Clinical Practice (GCP)
Data Management Healthy Patient Studies
Deception Hematology

65
Human Subject Phase II Study
Immunology/Infectious Diseases Phase III Study
In Vitro Testing Phase IV Study
In Vivo Testing Pilot Study
Incident Rate Placebo
Inclusion Criteria Pre-Clinical Testing
Informed Consent Prevention Trials
Investigator Protocol
Legally Acceptable Representative Protocol Amendment
Longitudinal Study Pulmonary/Respiratory Diseases
Monitoring Randomization
Nephrology/Urology Rheumatology
Neurology Risk-Benefit Ratio
Obstetrics/Gynecology Safety Reports
Off Label Screening Trials
Office for Human Research Serious Adverse Event (SAE)
Protection (OHRP) Side Effects
Oncology Single-Blind Study
Orphan Drug Statistical Significance
Over-the-Counter (OTC) Study Type
Patient Subject/Study Subject
Pediatrics/Neonatology Therapeutic Window
Peer Review Toxicity
Pharmacodynamic (PD) Study Unexpected Adverse Drug Reaction
Pharmacoeconomics Vulnerable Subjects
Pharmacokinetics Well-being
Pharmacology/Toxicology Withdrawal Application
Phase I Study

66
67
Role-play
v. role-played, role-playing, role-plays
v.tr.
• to act out (a situation), as for therapeutic, educational, or
recreational purposes.
• to assume the attitudes, actions, and discourse of (another),
especially in a make-believe situation in an effort to understand a
differing point of view or social interaction.
• to act and speak as if you are the character you're portraying. To
roleplay is as much about what not to say as what TO say. It means
to keep your speech in the context of the setting in which your
character (or avatar) exists. Context can be defined as both time and
place.

68
 Thebioethicsof human cloning

As cloning technologies improve and an increasing number of attempts to clone

organisms are met with success, the possibility of human cloning is becoming
an issue. Proponents of human cloning cite benefits in stem cell therapies and
infertility treatments while opponents cite moral, religious and ethical objections.
Should human cloning under any circumstances be allowed?

Roleplay procedure :
• Choose one scenario.
• Set up a group of 5 to 6 people.
• Choose a character
• Take a few minutes to produce a short INDIVIDUAL decision making model as the
one below.
• Then discuss it with your group and reach some agreement through voting.
• Finally, tell the whole class about your scenario.
1. introduce your character and state his/her opinion (don't be afraid to act it up)
2. a spokesperson will give the result of the vote
3. this may be followed by a class
debate.

You will be strongly encouraged to

express your personal point of view using
a bioethical decision making framework
for guidance. OVER TO YOU !

69
 Values and Descriptors
Read through each of the following values and its definition.
ACHIEVEMENT: Accomplishment; a result brought about by hard work to attain a desired goal.

AESTHETICS: The appreciation and enjoyment of beauty for beauty’s sake.

ALTRUISM: Concern for the interests of others.

AUTONOMY: Self-directed, capable of existing alone; acting without aid of others.

BEING LIKED: Being held in favor or regard by others.

COOPERATION: Working together for a mutual benefit.

CREATIVITY: Initiating new and innovative ideas and designs.

EDUCATION: The process of gaining knowledge and skills while developing reason, judgment
and intellectual maturity.

EMPATHY: The ability to share in someone else’s feelings.

EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING: Freedom from overwhelming anxieties and barriers; a peace of

mind; inner security.

EQUALITY/RIGHTS: Correspondence in quality, degree, value, rank or ability.

FAMILY/BELONGING: Related by blood or marriage.

FRIENDSHIP: The state of one person being attached to another by feelings of affection or
personal regard.

HEALTH: The soundness of one’s body.

HONESTY: Fairness or straightforwardness of conduct; integrity; uprightness of character or

action.

HUMAN DIGNITY: Holding all humans in high esteem regardless of age, race, or creed.

INTERDEPENDENCE: The mutual need for support, aid, comfort, etc.

INTIMACY: A close, familiar, and usually affectionate or loving personal relationship.

JUSTICE: The quality of being impartial; to treat others fairly or adequately.

KNOWLEDGE: The seeking of truth, information, or principles for the satisfaction of curiosity, for
use, or for the power of knowing.

70
LOVE: Affection based on admiration or benevolence; unselfish devotion.

LOYALTY: Maintaining allegiance to a person, group, institution, or political entity.

MORALITY: The moral values held by an individual or society.

OWNERSHIP: To have or hold material objects or to acknowledge specific ideas as being part
of your ideology.

PERSONAL HEALTH: The condition of being sound in body; freedom from physical disease or
pain; the general condition of the body; well-being.

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE: Concern for the beauty of one’s own body.

PLEASURE: The agreeable emotion accompanying the possession or expectation of what is

good or greatly desired; a state of gratification.

PRESTIGE: Holding a position of high value relative to society’s standards.

POWER: Possession of control, authority, or influence over others.

RECOGNITION: Being made to feel significant and important; given special notice or attention.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS: One’s convictions or opinions about religion, faith, devotion, etc.

SELF-CONTROL: Restraint of oneself or one’s actions, feelings, etc.

SELF-PRESERVATION: Looking out for your own welfare.

SELF-WORTH: A feeling of being useful and/or held in high esteem by others.

SKILL: The ability to use one’s knowledge effectively and readily in execution or performance;
technical expertise.

SOLITUDE: The state of being removed from society; a quiet life.

TRUTH: An ideal abstraction conforming to a universal or generalized reality.

WEALTH: Abundance or valuable material possession or resources; affluence.

WISDOM: The ability to discern inner qualities and relationships; insights, good sense,
judgment.

WORK/LABOR: Exertion or effort directed to produce or accomplish something; toil, effort.

71
 Bioethical Decision-Making Model

I. State the bioethical problem specific to the scenario (for example, Should human cloning
for economic gain be allowed?)

II. List at least 5 possible alternative actions or solutions to the problem, even if you do not
agree with some. (Five is the minimum.)

Ranking Solution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

III. Rank these alternatives in order of preference by placing numbers beside your solutions.
Rank the solutions from 1 being the one that your values agree with most and 8 your values
agree with least. For example place a #1 beside your first choice, #2 beside your second,
etc.

IV. Take your #1 solution and list at least 5 values you hold that cause you to rank it #1. Refer
to the Values and Descriptors sheet for ideas.

Value Personal Meaning of Value Word

1 _______________________________________________________
2 _______________________________________________________
3 _______________________________________________________
4 _______________________________________________________
5 _______________________________________________________
6 _______________________________________________________

Now take your #1 solution and describe the CONSEQUENCES you think it would have.
Consider any 5 of the long term and short term consequences below.

72
 A Kidney for Katie 5 (= 6 students)

Katie Dyd was an active, playful and energetic little girl. She
was always running about, climbing trees, or gathering all of
the neighborhood children to play team sports or run races in
the yards up and down the street. Katie had a zest for life and
actively pursued it.

Mysteriously, Katie began to feel run down, tired and sick

overall. After extensive medical tests and many trips to the
doctor, it was determined that her kidneys were failing and
that she would need a transplant.

Day after day the Dyds watched helplessly as Katie’s health

faded away and her condition became critical. Although
Katie was immediately placed on the transplant list, they were
told that it could be years until she received a donated kidney.
There were simply too many other people on the list and a
very limited supply of donated organs. The Dyds mounted a
desperate search to find a medical professional or scientist
that could tell them something different or offer an alternative
to a donated transplant. Their one ray of hope came in the form of a controversial technique
that would involve therapeutic human cloning to create embryonic stem cells for use in
growing a replacement organ.

Stem cells are “blank” cells that can differentiate to form any type of cell in the body. In Katie’s
case, stem cells would be stimulated to differentiate into the cells that create kidney tissue.
The differentiated cells would be grown in a carefully controlled and sterile environment until
the tissue formed a complete kidney. The kidney would then be transplanted into Katie’s body.
Researchers have told the Dyds that the success rate for organs grown from embryonic stem
cells is higher than with any other type of cell. The transplant is even more successful if the
embryonic stem cells used are an exact genetic match to the recipient. To achieve this, the
doctors would use one of Katie’s somatic cells to produce an embryonic clone from which the
stem cells would be harvested.

Because this is such a controversial technique, this form of treatment must first be approved by
the Hospital’s Ethics Committee before the team of scientists and medical professionals can
begin.
Is this a case where human cloning should be allowed? Consider this question
from one or more of the following viewpoints.
1) A medical professional
2) A scientist
3) A representative from a national organ transplant association
4) The chief administrator of a major hospital
5) A community member
6) A transplant recipient

73
 The Hope for a Resurrected Child (= 6 students)

By many accounts, Ann and Drew Sophila were the happiest

married couple in history. When they met there was no
question that each had found their partner for life. Their
happiness was only compounded by the birth of their son
Junior. In Junior, the Sophilas saw a combination of the very
best parts of each other. They cherished every moment they
had together and reveled in watching Junior grow with each
passing day.

Sadly, the Sophilas’ happiness ended tragically while on holiday at the ocean. During a picnic
on a chartered boat away from the crowds, a terrible boating accident claimed the lives of
both Drew and Junior. Ann survived, but was absolutely devastated by the loss of her
precious son and loving husband.

Stricken with grief and unable to move on, Ann knew she would never feel “normal” again
without a child to raise and love. Ann could not bear the thought of having a child that was not
Drew’s, however. A local biotech company had been advertising breakthrough advances in
cloning technology that enabled them to clone organisms from very small samples of DNA.
According to the company, a small sample of bodily fluid, tissue, or hair from an organism
yielded enough DNA to successfully produce a clone. This gave Ann a wonderful idea.

She rummaged through the house until she found Junior’s hair brush. Trapped in the bristles
was enough of Junior’s hair to produce a clone. A clone produced in this manner would not
only bring a child, but a child with a biological connection to her dear late husband back into
Ann’s life. Ann contacted the biotech company immediately and was informed about an
important process they must go through before they can begin.

In an effort to regulate human cloning, the federal government has set up

a new Human Cloning Ethics Committee to oversee all cloning practices.
The Human Cloning Ethics Committee consists of a research scientist, a
doctor, the president of a biotech company, a psychologist, a member of the clergy, and a
member of the community. Biotech companies must receive approval from the Committee
before they begin any cloning projects. Ann’s request is the first of this type the Committee has
considered.
Is this a case where human cloning should be allowed? Consider this question from one
or more of the following viewpoints:
1) A research scientist
2) A doctor
3) The president of a biotechnology company
4) A psychologist
5) A member of the clergy
6) A community member

74
 Protecting the nation of Lepidoptera (= 5 students)

Lepidoptera is a wealthy industrialized nation located between the 60˚

and 30˚ North latitudes. It is bordered by two oceans, enjoys a moderate
climate with four distinct seasons, and has rich and fertile soil throughout.
Lepidoptera’s main exports are oil, natural gas, wheat, corn and timber.
The nation’s abundance gives it a thriving economy and a well cared for
and productive populace.

Unfortunately, Lepidoptera’s abundance has made it a

target for neighboring nations greedy for its land and
resources. The country has been attacked a number
of times by land, air and sea, but each time has
managed to defend its borders. These victories have
not come without a cost, however. Lepidoptera has
lost many people in the battles and now its overall
population is diminished and birth rates are low.
Worried about future attacks and the nation’s inability
to swiftly repopulate, Lepidoptera’s leaders and
military figures are holding a meeting to discuss the
vulnerable future of their nation.

A group of genetic scientists have come forward with a proposal that will solve Lepidoptera’s
dilemma. The scientists are asking for funding and permission to produce clones of soldiers
known for their skill on the battlefield. Not only will this increase the number of military
personnel, but it will also produce soldiers with physical characteristics that are superior in
battle. The clones will be well cared for by loving military families and trained until it is time for
them to serve their country.

Is this a case where human cloning should be funded

and allowed? Consider this question from one or
more of the following viewpoints.

1) A citizen of Lepidoptera
2) Another citizen of Lepidoptera
3) The General in charge of Lepidoptera’s military
4) The parents or spouse of a soldier the group is
hoping to clone
5) A soldier the group is hoping to clone

75
 Immunology Role Play

Bird Flu may be spreading soon to Ireland. Take part in a talk show as one of the role-
play characters below. Answer questions from the public and the journalist : you should
be ready to face any controversy !

1. Members of the public : You have been reading the different newspapers telling you
about bird flu, but you want the facts about the real risks. You think people should be told the
truth about Bird Flu and then be allowed to make their own decision. You want to know if it is
safe to eat chicken and how likely it is that you could catch Bird Flu. There have been some
cases were Bird Flu has been transmitted from human- to- human and if the virus changes so
that this can happen all the time, then it will be extremely dangerous. More than half of
humans infected by Bird Flu actually die!
2. Recovered Chinese Bird Flu Patient : You were very lucky and your symptoms were
treated early and you survived. You worked in a slaughter house where poultry were killed,
gutted and plucked. You were given the antiviral drug, Tamilflu but the doctors were unsure if it
would work as some resistant strains of the virus have formed. You think more information is
needed to help those working with poultry so they can protect themselves. You think that many
people could be saved by a vaccine.
3. Poultry Farmer : You only earn money through selling your chickens and eggs to Farm
Feds, (a local chicken factory.) You have four children and a wife to support and you are the
only earner in the family. You are very worried that bird flu will come to Northern Ireland and
your 10,000 birds will have to be killed, burned and your farm disinfected. It goes beyond the
government just giving money for losses incurred. The appropriate thing to do is also to ensure
that we control the spread as a country. Government/poultry farmers’ collaboration is vital!
4. Infectious Disease Expert : All the fundamental events have happened for the start of a
pandemic except the move of the virus from human-to-human transmission. Each new human
case gives the virus an opportunity to change towards this. You are worried that if the spread is
not stopped the world will have a pandemic on their hands and Northern Ireland will not be
prepared.
5. Owner of a Chicken Factory : Your business is based solely on consumer habits and
the Bird Flu scare could make the public very frightened of eating any chicken. This will
seriously affect your business and you are greatly concerned with the information which will be
given to public about the outbreak. You want the government to put in place measures which
ensure consumers are given accurate information about the safety of the food they eat.
6. Vet : You have been a vet in Donegal for 15 years working with all types of farmers. You
know that thousands of birds may have to be killed or put into quarantine if bird flu comes to
Northern Ireland. You think that, in order to stop the spread of the disease, birds would need to
be killed or vaccinated. Otherwise more and more birds will become infected leaving more
chance for it being transmitted to other animals or to humans. Wild birds are carrying the
disease without showing signs of symptoms proving them to be very dangerous.
7. Experienced Doctor : You worked in Vietnam in 2004 for 6 months during the H5N1
outbreak. You are quite aware of the dangers of this virus and you think that Doctors in Northern
Ireland are not prepared, as decisions must be made based on the first patient assessment on
admission to hospital, There is no time to wait 12 hours on lab results. People's lives are in
danger.
8. Pharmaceutical Company Owner : Your company produce the antiviral drugs which
could be used to fight a bird Flu epidemic. The government have purchased 14.6million courses
so far and if a vaccine is developed once the strain has been identified you will benefit greatly.

76
H1N1 (seasonal human flu) infects higher up in the respiratory tract, while H5N1 infects
further down, making it more lethal but less human transmissible.

77
 H5 Viruses in the United States
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI)
H5 infections have been reported in U.S. domestic
poultry (backyard and commercial flocks), captive
wild birds, and wild birds by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Department of
Interior (DOI). HPAI H5 detections began in
December 2014 and continued into mid-June 2015.
During that time H5 bird flu virus detections were
reported in 21 U.S. states (15 states with outbreaks
in domestic poultry or captive birds and 6 states
with H5 detections in wild birds only). It is possible that H5 outbreaks in birds in the United States
may recur in the fall and winter. Surveillance for H5 in U.S. birds is ongoing.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is the lead Federal agency for the human
health response. At this time, no human infections with these viruses have been detected, however
similar viruses have infected people in other countries and caused serious illness and death in some
cases. Human infections with other avian influenza viruses have occurred after close and prolonged
contact with infected birds or the excretions/secretions of infected birds (e.g., droppings, oral fluids).
While the health risk posed to the general public by domestic HPAI outbreaks is low, it is
possible that human infections with these viruses could occur. CDC has guidance for clinicians and
public health professionals in the United States on appropriate follow-up, preventive treatment,
testing, specimen collection and processing of samples from patients who may be infected with H5
viruses.
H5N1 causes latest French outbreak
The pace of France's outbreaks has slowed
since the events began in late November, but the
country continues to report sporadic detections, with the
63rd and 64th outbreaks reported at the end of
December in Dordogne and Gers, two departments that
had earlier been affected by the virus.
The most recent update from France's agriculture
ministry said the outbreak total stands at 66 today,
apparently due to another detection in Landes for which
no details were provided.
French officials said the first outbreak in Lot
department—the country's 65th—occurred at a farm in
the town of Miers that housed 260 Guinea fowl, 280
ducks, 650 chickens, and 60 broiler hens, according to an official statement translated and posted by
Avian Flu Diary, an infectious disease news blog. It involved the H5N1 strain. France's outbreaks
have been caused by a new highly pathogenic Eurasian H5N1 strain, as well as H5N2 and H5N9.
A report to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) that includes Lot's outbreak said
testing was triggered by the deaths of 39 Guinea fowl and that the remaining 1,211 birds at the farm
will be destroyed to curb the spread of the virus. The OIE also fleshed out some of the details on
France's recent outbreak in Dordogne, detected after six hens died. The 194 remaining birds at the
facility, which also included pigeons, geese, and peacocks, were culled.

January 5, 2016

78
 Cancer : Five Role Play Scenarios

You and your group are given one of these role-playing scenarios. In each case, an ethical
dilemma is posed. Act out a short sketch showing how you would react to a given situation.

Kidney Transplant
Your very good friend has cancer of the kidney. Both kidneys have been removed, and now he
is looking for a transplant. His doctor says there is nothing available and that he will have to
remain on dialysis for the foreseeable future. Dialysis is making him weak and sick. His doctor
says there is an alternative: if he can ask his friends to take a blood test, he might find a close
enough match. You take the test. He has the results. Guess what? You and he have a
match…”

50/50
Your brother has just been diagnosed with a very lethal cancer. He mentions that his doctor
also wants to talk to you. The scene begins with the doctor telling you that, unfortunately, this
cancer has strong heritability (if you have the gene for it you will probably get the cancer) and
that you have a 50/50 chance of having the gene. He wants to know if you want to take the test
or not. Make sure that your doctor outlines the pros and cons of taking the test. Then you must
make your decision. Your role-play should also include you receiving the test results (good or
bad).

Organs For Cash

You are healthy but poor as a church mouse. You get wind of a company who is looking for
organ donors. They are willing to pay big bucks for the following organs: kidneys, liver (liver
regenerates after harvest), slices of skin, and cells from your pancreas. Scene opens with you
knocking on the door of the organ broker. You attempt to bargain for the largest amount of
money possible.

False Positive
Many of these new tests are untried. They still give false results. You are tested using a
genetics test for colon cancer. You test positive. This means you have a very high risk of
cancer in the next two years. You go home and tell your family. How do you and they handle
this information? Then you get a phone call saying the test was wrong—you are in the clear.
How do you react?

True Positive
The doctor tells you that you have a gene that puts you in a high-risk group for colon cancer.
He says your risk will be lower if you change your diet. You currently live on burgers, fries, and
cola. Your wife (or husband) serves you up a soy burger, and some other health food. You
hate it at first, but soon you realize it’s for the best and you live happily ever after.

79
 Neuroscience

Nightmare situation : your sensory systems have come alive and speak to you ! Imagine
a conversation amongst yourselves : do they/you get on well ? Are they grateful for the
way you treat them ? No limit to your imagination (and scientific knowledge !)

80
Useful grammar
for Science

81
For more specific grammar rules and exercises go to :
http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/freeexercises.htm
http://www.e-anglais.com/
http://www.mycow.eu/

Present simple
Example Meaning
The newspaper says… the general present
He likes Ann ; she drinks coffee. opinions ; habits
She lives in Turin. the « status quo »
He leaves for work at 7 o’clock. habitual actions
Water freezes at 0°C. scientific facts
TIME MARKERS (they also may be implicit)
every day usually often sometimes

Present continuous
Example Meaning
Look ! It is raining on-going present time
Mary is trying to finish her work actions happening now
At the moment, he is working in London temporary actions in the present
TIME MARKERS
now at the moment currently at present temporarily

‘I’m always doing something’ has a different meaning.

For example:

I’ve lost my pen again. I’m always losing things.

I’m always losing things = I lose things very often,
perhaps too often, or more often than normal.

82
 Present perfect simple
Example Meaning
She has already finished her work it is important now / a surprise
He has broken his leg the result is important : he can’t walk now
I have just finished the finishing is part of the present
I have never been to Miami in my life / up to now
He has worked in Madrid since 1999 from then till now / it is not history
I have seen him twice this week the time span is the present : this week,
not last week
TIME MARKERS
just recently already not yet ever never
so far up to now since 1999 for 3 years this week/month

Present perfect continuous

Example Meaning
He has been living in Paris for several months an on-going action (not yet completed)
They have been studying the question for years non-stop : up to the present
She has been working in Bordeaux temporary present : up to now
TIME MARKERS
for ten years for a long time since 1999

Situation A : It has been raining

Is it raining?
No, but the ground is wet.
It has been raining.
Have/has been -ing is the present perfect continuous:

doing
I/we/they/you have (= I’ve etc.)
been waiting
he/she/it has (= he’s etc.)
playing etc.

We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped.
There is a connection with now: It has been raining for two hours.

83
 Situation B : It began raining two hours ago and it is still raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.
We use the present perfect continuous in this way with how long,
for ... and since ... . The activity is still happening (as in this
example) or has just stopped.

Past simple
Example Meaning
I went to the cinema last week past, finished actions
In 1865, Pasteur discovered the theory of microbes dates : « history »
I saw her briefly a couple of hours ago past action considered as no longer
important
When I was a child… memories
TIME MARKERS
yesterday two days ago last week in 1970
In the XVIIIth century during the war

Past continuous
Example Meaning
She was trying to finish a letter past duration
While he was eating the meal, the TV imploded two past actions : one inter-rupted
by another
At the time he was living in London temporary past
TIME MARKERS
while when
Compare:

When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. • When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (=
(= we had already started before she arrived) Karen arrived, and then we had dinner)

84
 Past perfect simple
Example Meaning
As soon as he had finished his meal he went out the first of 2 past events
TIME MARKERS
after as soon as when

at 10.30 at 11.00 Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too,
but they didn’t see each other. Paul left the party at 10.30
and Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock. So:
When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there.
He had gone home.
Had gone is the past perfect (simple):

gone
I/we/they/you (= I’d etc.)
had seen
he/she/it (= he’d etc.)
finished etc.

Past pefect continuous

Example Meaning
They had been living in Cairo for about ten years the first of 2 actions : past action
when the war broke out with duration
He had been working on the problem for years stress on the action
TIME MARKERS
when after for a long time during this period

Compare have been -ing (present perfect continuous) and had been -ing (past perfect continuous):

• I hope the bus comes soon. I’ve been • At last the bus came. I’d been waiting
waiting for 20 minutes. (before now) for 20 minutes. (before the bus came)

• James is out of breath. He has been • James was out of breath. He had been
running. running.

85
 TENSES

Put the verbs in the right tense and insert the mentioned adverbs correctly :

1/ Biologists ___________________ for a long time that there is some kind of electrical
communication in plants. (to know)
2/ The researchers ___________________ for the results of the clinical trials. (now /
wait)
3/ Fermi ___________________ as professor of theoretical physics at Rome University
for more than 10 years when he was awarded the Nobel Prize. (to work)
4/ This is the first time scientists ___________________ material on Earth created by
supernovae. (to find)
5/ Slowly but surely the world's rain forests ___________________ irrevocably
damaged by global warming. (to be)
6/ As soon as I ___________________ I will telephone you. (to finish)
7/ Einstein ___________________ in the Soviet Union. (never/ to work)
8/ Victims of Alzheimer's disease ___________________ from a loss of memory and
judgement. (to suffer)
9/ By 1400 BC the earliest geographers ___________________ the shores of the
Mediterranean sea. (already / to map)
10/ It is alleged that Roman Emperor Nero played the violin while the city
___________________. (to burn)
11/ Several attempts ___________________ to identify the virus. (already / to make)
12/ You can see the results already. It quite obvious that the new technology
___________________ the way people think. (to influence)
13/ So far, no government ___________________ to ensure full employment. (to
manage)
14/ While they ___________________ the stars of the Milky Way, they accidentally
found a new galaxy. (to study)
15/ By the end of WWII, airline technology ___________________.(considerably / to
improve)

86
Compound nouns and adjectives are groups of two or more nouns or adjectives which
are combined to express a complex single idea. Compounds are widely used in
scientific and technological English as they allow new concepts with multiple meanings
to be expressed in a concise way.

COMPOUND NOUNS
1/ ADJECTIVES
a big / a general / a private / a mental hospital
2/ POSSESSIVE FORMS
St Mary’s / a children’s hospital
3/ « ING » PARTICIPLES
a teaching / a smoothly-running hospital
4/ PAST PARTICIPLES
a well-built / a modernly-equipped hospital
5/ NOUN MODIFIERS
a research / a city / a prison hospital

Compound nouns are used to refer to specific, identifiable objects or concepts. They are
extremely common in scientific and specialised English because they make it possible for
complex notions to be expressed in a concise, elegant way. Compare :
X-ray therapy and a therapy using rays which are in the category X

Compound nouns are frequently difficult to understand because the order is the inverse
of what is usual in many languages. This is particularly clearly illustrated by acronyms :
UNO  ONU (United Nations Organisation)
NATO  OTAN (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)

The reason that the order is inverted is because the principal meaning of the
compound noun is in the final word.

Example : What is a robot control technology ? It is a technology.

It is a technology designed to control.

It is a technology designed to control robots.

 control

robot  technology

 technology  designed to control
robots

87
Modifying nouns have the same function as adjectives. This explains why they do not
take an « s » even after numerals.

a four door car

a 20 euro note

a five nurse team

The rules for spelling compounds are not fixed :

 sometimes they are written as one word a wavelength
 sometimes they are linked with a hyphen an X-ray
 sometimes they are written as two words a radon detector

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

There are three different forms :

1/ THE ING FORM : the present participle of the verb can be used as a modifier

a hard-working student / an amplifying system / a warning device / a
distinguishing feature, etc.
 This form refers to a typical, defining characteristic.

2/ THE PAST PARTICIPLE :

a well-written report / a pre-tested drug / widely-used techniques, etc.
 This form has usually an underlying passive meaning and refers to something
already done, something in the past.

3/ ADDING « ED » TO A NOUN : the noun acts as if they were verbs.

a cold-blooded animal / a red-haired girl / a two-winged insect / a 6- wheeled lorry
/ a twin-engined plane, etc.

88
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Form compound nouns corresponding to the following definitions :

1/ a module for travelling in space designed for three men
2/ a program which sequences genes
3/ techniques for survival over a period of time which is long
4/ research into drugs which is oriented towards profit
5/ levels of dioxide of carbon that rise
6/ a tube that is made of steel with a diameter of 88 millimeters
7/ cells which cause cancer and destroy bones
8/ a period for trials which lasts four days
9/ techniques which sensor and are controlled by satellites
10/ an insect that has six wings and four legs
11/ cells which are sensitive to light
12/ an engine which burns petrol
13/ a crater of a meteorite which is two meters wide
14/ a rate of unemployment which increases fast
15/ a technician for research in the field of microbiology (who is senior)
16/ a conference which lasts four days
17/ a victim of a landmine with one leg
18/ a family with three children

89
Modification is expressed typically by adjectives to modify the meaning of nouns and by
adverbs to modify the meaning of other advers, adjectives, verbs or phrases.

ADJECTIVES
IMPORTANCE : important significant crucial meaningful relevant

What Bachelard wrote in 1934 is still relevant to contemporary scientific problems.

DIMENSION : enormous tremendous huge widespread

# small-scale tiny minute

Blood plasma contains minute quantities of creatinine.

HIERARCHY : major main chief leading primary

foremost outstanding
# secondary minor common average typical standard

He was one of the world’s foremost neuroscientists.

INTENSITY : dramatic striking acute steep sharp

There has been a sharp decline in the quality of river water.

APTITUDE AND UTILITY : appropriate suitable useful reliable efficient

If electromagnetic radiation of suitable wavelength falls upon the metal, electrons are
ejected.

90
 ADVERBS

ESSENCE : essentially fundamentally basically on the whole

Basically, there is little difference between the two processes.

MANNER : carefully steadily thoroughly accurately properly

The first law of thermodynamics was not properly formulated until the middle of 19th
century.

NEGATION : hardly (any) scarcely (any) barely (any)

After processing, hardly any of the nutrients remain.

DEGREE :
a little a bit slightly

relatively quite rather fairly

very extremely exceedingly

The results were slightly better than last year.

APPROXIMATION : nearly almost roughly more or less

virtually to a certain extent partly
# totally quite entirely utterly thoroughly

For most people, living without a motor car would be utterly unacceptable.

91
 MODIFICATION
Fill in the gaps with the right modifiers below :
typical huge reliable minute virtually
barely thoroughly roughly hardly any outstanding
to a certain extent widespread basically foremost

1/ Although it has a ___________________ population, China has successfully reduced

both fertility and mortality.
2/ ___________________, there are four types of language in Europe.
3/ Historical records of earthquakes before the middle of the 18th century are not
___________________.
4/ There is still ___________________ fear that genetically modified viruses might
escape from the laboratory.
5/ A human being requires ___________________ 3,000 calories a day.
6/ Intra-species fighting can be observed in ___________________ all vertebrates.
7/ Osteoporosis (thinning of the bones) is a ___________________ example of an age-
related disease.
8/ Military trainee pilots are very ___________________ prepared.
9/ From a technological point of view, Concorde has been an ___________________
success.
10/ There are ___________________ tigers left - they'll soon be extinct.
11/ ___________________, I agree with you.
12/ It is traffic accidents that are the ___________________ cause of death for you
adults.
13/ There are ___________________ any new features in this software.
14/ There were ___________________ particles of dust in the air.

92
Relating one idea to another is also one of the essential roles of language. One way of
doing this is by means of link words. These are conjunctions and adverbs that can be
used for example to indicate that :
- the information is supplementary to something already said (and…)
- the information stands in contrast to what has been said before (but…)
- the information is a cause, a consequence or an illustration (because, for
example…)

GIVING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

and not only/but as well as in addition

furthermore moreover besides apart from

the flat is too small and furthermore, it is not in the town centre.

CONTRAST

but however nevertheless yet although (even) though

in spite of/despite whereas on (the) one hand/ on (the) other hand

Geologists are using radio-active analysis of rocks more and more, nevertheless it is
not suitable in every case.

CONTRAST TO WHAT PEOPLE THINK

actually in fact in actual fact in reality

93

Most people think that Fleming was the father of penicillin, but actually most of the
work was done by Florey.

INTRODUCING A CAUSE/CONSEQUENCE

because as since consequently

therefore thus hence as a result thereby

The arteries become gradually blocked , thereby reducing the ooxygen supply to the
brain.

INTRODUCING SOMETHING OBVIOUS/GENERALLY ACCEPTED

obviously naturally of course clearly doubtless/no doubt

Obviously, unless the birth rate decreases, there will be a major food crisis.

MAKING A GENERAL STATEMENT

in general generally speaking on the whole as a rule

As a rule, metals are inflmmable.

CLARIFICATION

for example for instance e.g3 that is to say

In other words i.e4 such as namely

The quantity of heat is expressed in the same units as energy and work, namely
joules.

3
e.g = exampla gratia = par exemple
4
i.e = id est = c’est à dire

94
 LINKWORDS

Choose the correct answer

1/ The device enables temperatures to be monitored, ___________________ improving
the safety margin.
a. thereby
b. nevertheless
c. namely
d. e.g

2/ A new technique, ___________________ the infra-red camera, means that dust

surrounding new stars can be penetrated.
a. whereas
b. namely
c. besides
d. for instance

3/ Superconducting ___________________ when materials lose all resistance, will

boost computer performances.
a. thus
b. obviously
c. besides
d. that is to say

4/ Programmable electronic systems are more reliable, they can be used to handle
radioactive material.
a. whereas
b. such as
c. moreover
d. in other words

5/ Computers can process data extremely fast. ___________________ this, they have
several serious drawbacks.
a. in spite of
b. whereas
c. however
d. moreover

6/ The new engine is far more efficient. ___________________ more work is required
to reduce noise levels.
a. nevertheless
b. whereas
c. i.e
d. besides

95
7/ The presence of high concentrations of elements that are rarely found on Earth,
___________________ iridium, suggests there was a meteorite impact at that spot.
a. on the whole
b. moreover
c. such as
d. that is to say

8/ The data is stored on hard disk, ___________________ it is easily accessible.

a. actually
b. whereas
c. e.g
d. hence

9/ Applicants for the job should speak at least one other European language
___________________ French.
a. obviously
b. besides
c. moreover
d. actually

10/ ___________________, in the initial stages there were minor problems to be

overcome, but from then on, the prototypes were perfectly reliable.
a. besides
b. as a rule
c. namely
d. despite

96
Modals are a special category of words that give a different sort of information from
other verbs; they have at least 2 meanings. In an ordinary verb phrase, when you say
« the volcano has erupted » you are giving information about the volcano. With modals,
the information is not about the action, it tells us whether the speaker estimates that the
action is probable, possible or advisable.
The volcano may erupt (I think there is a 50% chance of this happening).
The inhabitants should leave the valley (I think it would be a good idea).

WILL
The sun will rise at 5.32 tomorrow

this is a fact ; there is no possible doubt.
Meaning : total certitude about a future event : probability 100% = it is certain…

MUST
There must be ice on the moon.

I am convinced but I have no proof.
She’s absent ; she must be ill.

It’s the only logical explanation.
Meaning : almost total certitude : probability 90% = I am almost sure…

MAY
The volcano may erupt next year.

Perhaps it will erupt, perhaps it won’t.
Meaning : there’s a reasonable chance : probability 50% = perhaps… maybe…

MIGHT
It might erupt next year.

it’s possible, but I would be rather surprised.

97
Meaning : might is an even lesser probability : 25%. That’s why might is often followed
by but : perhaps, but… it is just possible…

SHOULD/OUGHT TO
You should / ought to help old ladies cross the road.

if you’re a good person
You should turn off the electricity at night.

If not you will waste electricity.
You should read this book.

It’s a good book ; it would be a mistake not to read it.
You should turn off the electricity at night.

If not you will waste electricity.
The letter should arrive tomorrow.

if nothing abnormal happens.
Meaning : what is right, good, normal =
it would be a good idea…
it is advisable/ desirable…
it is to be expected / if nothing goes wrong
normally / theoretically / in principle…

CAN
Satellites can detect objects with a diameter of 10 cm.

it is feasible, technically possible.
He can speak German

He has the capacity, the knowledge.
He couldn’t answer the question.

It was too difficult…
Meaning : unlike the previous examples, can and could do not express probability but
feasibility : what is physically, technically or intellectually possible. The feasibility is
100% = to be able to (do), to succeed in (doing)…

98
 COULD
A short-circuit could be responsible for the break-down.

there are several possible causes ; this is one of them.
Meaning : the idea is that something is technically possible but that it will not
necessarily happen. It is just one hypothesis = it is a possibility…perhaps… maybe…

FUTURE AND PAST TIMES

1. Future
As modals give the speaker’s assessment of the situation at the time of speaking, they
can be used to talk about the future.
He may get a job in Turin next year.

I think now that there is a reasonable chance of this happening next year.

2. Past
Past modality is expressed by using the past infinitive.
Subject + Modal + Have + Past participle
She must have telephoned last night.
He could have come yesterday.
She may have finished already.

99
 MODALS

Choose the correct answer

1/ X rays are potentially dangerous and ___________________ used on women.
a. will not
b. could not
c. might not
d. should not

2/ In 1555 Nostradamus predicted the end of the world for AD 3797. Most people think
this is ___________________.
a. expected
b. feasible
c. unlikely
d. doubtless

3/ If there is a reduction of the area of the habitat, a forest ___________________lose

up to 50% of its species.
a. ought to
b. must
c. may
d. expects to

4/ The best acoustic qualities require natural sound. That is why, ideally, recording
studios ___________________ be designed to have a normal degree of echo.
a. may
b. might
c. could
d. ought to

5/ An intoxicated person is 4.5 times as ___________________ to die in a motor-

vehicle accident according to statistics.
a. possible
b. expected
c. feasible
d. likely

100
6/ Most scientists now agree that the extinction of dinosaurs ___________________
caused by an asteroid impact.
a. is expected to have been
b. must have been
c. would have been
d. might have been

7/ It ___________________ be realized that the conventional segregation of zoology

and botany is meaningless as many lower organisms are neither plants nor animals.
a. should
b. may
c. will
d. could

8/ As oil becomes scarcer, there ___________________ be an increase in price.

a. expects to
b. will doubtless
c. might
d. can

9/ The estimation of the total number of species that exist in the world varies
enormously. Some say there ___________________ be 100 million, others suggest 5
million.
a. can
b. should
c. would
d. might

In the following example all the answers are correct. Explain the different meanings.
10/ The computer has crashed, it ___________________ due to a short circuit.
a. must have been
b. could have been
c. may have been
d. is

101

Title of article chosen : ………………………

Vocabulary

Write here the translation of some unknown words or phrases.

ENGLISH FRENCH

102
List here the tricky grammar structures you identified
in your article.

Tenses

Compounds

Modification and linkwords

Modals

103
Article A

Dual Inhibition of Endocannabinoid Catabolic Enzymes Produces

Enhanced Anti-Withdrawal Effects in Morphine-Dependent Mice.
Ramesh D, Gamage TF, Vanuytsel T, Owens RA, Abdullah RA, Niphakis MJ, Shea-Donohue T,
Cravatt BF, Lichtman AH.
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013 May

Source : Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical

College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University,
Richmond, VA, USA.

Inhibition of the endocannabinoid catabolic enzymes, monoacylglycerol lipase

(MAGL) or fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) attenuates naloxone-precipitated opioid
withdrawal signs in mice via activation of CB(1) receptors. Complete FAAH inhibition
blocks only a subset of withdrawal signs, while complete MAGL inhibition elicits
enhanced anti-withdrawal efficacy, but is accompanied with some cannabimimetic side
effects. Thus, the primary objective of the present study was to determine whether
combined full FAAH inhibition and partial MAGL represents an optimal strategy to
reduce opioid withdrawal.
To test this hypothesis, we examined whether combined administration of high-
dose of the FAAH inhibitor PF-3845 and low-dose of the MAGL inhibitor JZL184, as well
as the novel dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor SA-57, which is 100-fold more potent in
inhibiting FAAH than MAGL, would prevent spontaneous withdrawal in morphine-
dependent mice, a model with greater face validity than precipitating withdrawal with µ-
opioid receptor antagonists.
Strikingly, a combination of low-dose JZL184 and high-dose PF-3845 as well as
the dual inhibitor SA-57 reduced all abrupt withdrawal signs (i.e., platform jumping, paw
flutters, head shakes, diarrhea, and total body weight loss), but did not elicit any
cannabimimetic side effects. Additionally, JZL184 or PF-3845 blocked naloxone-
precipitated hypersecretion in morphine-dependent small intestinal tissue. Collectively,
these results are the first to show that endocannabinoid catabolic enzyme inhibitors
reduce abrupt withdrawal in morpine-dependent mice and are effective in a novel in
vitro model of opioid withdrawal. More generally, these findings support the idea that
joint MAGL and FAAH inhibition represents a promising approach for the treatment of
opioid dependence.

104
Article B

Analyzing the function of small GTPases by microinjection of

plasmids into polarized epithelial cells.
Cook RN, Ang SF, Kang RS, Fölsch H.
2011 May

Abstract
Epithelial cells polarize their plasma membrane into biochemically and functionally
distinct apical and basolateral domains where the apical domain faces the 'free'
surfaces and the basolateral membrane is in contact with the substrate and neighboring
cells. Both membrane domains are separated by tight junctions, which form a diffusion
barrier. Apical-basolateral polarization can be recapitulated successfully in culture when
epithelial cells such as Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells are seeded at high
density on polycarbonate filters and cultured for several days.
Establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is regulated by an array of small
GTPases of the Ras superfamily such as RalA, Cdc42, Rab8, Rab10 and Rab13. Like
all GTPases these proteins cycle between an inactive GDP-bound state and an active
GTP-bound state. Specific mutations in the nucleotide binding regions interfere with this
cycling. For example, Rab13T22N is permanently locked in the GDP-form and thus
dubbed 'dominant negative', whereas Rab13Q67L can no longer hydrolyze GTP and is
thus locked in a 'dominant active' state. To analyze their function in cells both dominant
negative and dominant active alleles of GTPases are typically expressed at high levels
to interfere with the function of the endogenous proteins. An elegant way to achieve
high levels of overexpression in a short amount of time is to introduce the plasmids
encoding the relevant proteins directly into the nuclei of polarized cells grown on filter
supports using microinjection technique. This is often combined with the co-injection of
reporter plasmids that encode plasma membrane receptors that are specifically sorted
to the apical or basolateral domain.
A cargo frequently used to analyze cargo sorting to the basolateral domain is a
temperature sensitive allele of the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSVGts045).
This protein cannot fold properly at 39°C and will thus be retained in the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) while the regulatory protein of interest is assembled in the cytosol. A shift
to 31°C will then allow VSVGts045 to fold properly, leave the ER and travel to the
plasma membrane. This chase is typically performed in the presence of cycloheximide
to prevent further protein synthesis leading to cleaner results. Here we describe in detail
the procedure of microinjecting plasmids into polarized cells and subsequent
incubations including temperature shifts that allow a comprehensive analysis of
regulatory proteins involved in basolateral sorting.

105
Article C
Differential diagnosis of scrub typhus meningitis from bacterial
meningitis using clinical and laboratory features.

Varghese GM, Mathew A, Kumar S, Abraham OC, Trowbridge P, Mathai E.

Neurol India. 2013 Jan-Feb

Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) involvement in the form of meningitis or
meningoencephalitis is common in scrub typhus. As specific laboratory methods remain
inadequate or inaccessible in developing countries, prompt diagnosis is often difficult.
Aim: To identify the clinical and laboratory parameters that may help in differentiating
scrub typhus meningitis from bacterial meningitis. Setting and Design: This is a cross-
sectional analysis of adult patients admitted with scrub typhus and bacterial meningitis
to a tertiary care teaching institute in South India. Materials and Methods:
A comparison of clinical and laboratory features of 25 patients admitted with meningitis
to a university teaching hospital during a 15-month period was made. These patients
had meningitis diagnosed based on abnormal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis with
either positive IgM scrub typhus ELISA serology (n =16) or with CSF culture isolating
bacteria known to cause bacterial meningitis (n =9). The clinical and laboratory features
of the patients with scrub typhus meningitis and bacterial meningitis were compared.
Results: The mean age was similar in the scrub typhus and bacterial meningitis groups
(44.0 ± 18.5 years vs. 46.3 ± 23.0 years). Features at admission predictive of a
diagnosis of scrub typhus meningitis were duration of fever at presentation >5 days (8.4
± 3.5 days vs. 3.3 ± 4.2 days, P < 0.001), CSF white cell count of a lesser magnitude
(83.2 ± 83.0 cells/cumm vs. 690.2 + 753.8 cells/cumm, P < 0.001), CSF lymphocyte
proportion >50% (83.9 ± 12.5% vs. 24.8 ± 17.5% P < 0.001), and alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) elevation more than 60 IU (112.5 ± 80.6 IU vs. 35 ± 21.4 IU, P
=0.02).
Conclusion: This study suggests that clinical features, including the duration of fever
and laboratory parameters such as CSF pleocytosis, CSF lymphocyte proportion >50%,
and ALT values are helpful in differentiating scrub typhus from bacterial meningitis.

106
 Article D
Treatment of recurrent and platinum-refractory stage IV non-small cell
lung cancer with nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel (nab-
paclitaxel) as a single agent.
Saxena A1, Schneider BJ2,3, Christos PJ4, Audibert LF2,5, Cagney JM2,6, Scheff RJ2.
• 1
Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine,
1305 York Avenue, 7th Floor, New York, NY, 10021, USA. [email protected].
• 2
Division of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine,
1305 York Avenue, 7th Floor, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
• 3
Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan
Health System, Cancer Center Floor B1, Reception C, 1500 E Medical Center Dr, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109,
USA.
• 4
Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, Weill
Cornell Medicine, 402 East 67th Street, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
• 5
Pulmonary and Sleep Medicine, The Mount Sinai Hospital, 5 East 98th St, 8th Floor, New York,
NY, 10029, USA.
• 6
Breast Cancer Medicine Service, Breast and Imaging Center, Memorial Sloan
Kettering Cancer Center, 300 East 66th St, New York, NY, 10065, USA.

Abstract
The role of single-agent nab-paclitaxel in relapsed or platinum-refractory advanced non-small
cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has not been well reported in Western populations. We reviewed our
own institution's experience using nab-paclitaxel in these settings. We analyzed the records of
stage IV NSCLC patients with relapsed or platinum-refractory disease treated with single-agent
nab-paclitaxel at Weill Cornell Medical College between October 2008 and December 2013.
The primary endpoint of the study was treatment failure-free survival (TFFS), defined as the
time from the start of nab-paclitaxel therapy to discontinuation of the drug for any reason. The
best overall response was recorded for each patient, and overall response and disease control
rates were calculated. Thirty-one stage IV NSCLC patients received a median of 4 cycles (range
1-40) of nab-paclitaxel. Dose reduction or drug discontinuation due to toxicity occurred in 10
patients, mainly because of grade 2/3 fatigue or peripheral neuropathy. The overall response
rate was 16.1 %, and the disease control rate was 64.5 %. Median TFFS was 3.5 months (95 %
CI 1.3-5.3 months). No statistically significant difference in TFFS based on line of therapy or
prior taxane exposure was identified. There was a statistically significant decrease in TFFS for
patients with non-adenocarcinoma histology, although there were only five patients in this
group. There was a trend toward reduction in the risk of treatment failure with increasing age.
One patient remained on nab-paclitaxel therapy for over 3 years. Single-agent nab-paclitaxel
was well tolerated and demonstrated efficacy in advanced NSCLC patients with relapsed or
platinum-refractory disease. Further prospective clinical trials with nab-paclitaxel in these
settings are warranted.

KEYWORDS:
Carcinoma; Neoplasm recurrence; Non-small cell lung; Taxane 130-nm albumin-bound
paclitaxel; Treatment failure

107
108
 Vocabulary for writing a summary (based on reading or listening)
Introducing
First of all,
For a start,
To begin with,
As an introduction,
It is interesting first to note that…, then
secondly that...
It is commonly said that…
The writer’s / film director's approach
To come up with an idea (suggérer une
idée)
To insist on…
To refer to… (faire référence à)
To concede a point (admettre)
To take into consideration
To address a problem (aborder)
To object to st (ne pas être d’accord avec)
To assert (affirmer, soutenir)
To argue (donner comme argument que)
To shed light on (éclairer, éclaircir)
To survey
To analyse
To report (on)
Linking
At first glance…on second thoughts (à première vue…, en y regardant de plus près)
On the one hand, on the other hand (d’une part, d’autre part)
To some extent, (dans une certaine mesure)
Contrary to… (contrairement à)
On the contrary, (au contraire)
Conversely, (inversement)
However (cependant)
However + adj. ou adv.: However hard he may try, he will lose the vote (quels que
soient ses efforts / Même si…)
Whether… or not. : Whether he is elected or not, his name will be remembered (qu’il
soit élu ou non)
Still (toutefois)
This leads me on to… /this brings me to my next point
On top of this, / In addition, (de plus)
Not only… but also
Then/ next (ensuite)
Finally/eventually (finalement)
In other words,
In short, (bref)
That aside, (ceci mis à part)
Generally speaking,

109
Expressing opinion
In my opinion... / I believe that…
My view is just the opposite
There is no denying that… (on ne peut nier que)
I maintain that…
I am convinced that…
It all boils/comes down to (+ VbIng)… (ça revient à/ça se résume à)
Discussing
To put st in perspective/in question
Let us consider/the other side of the coin/the cons/
Qualifying
Strangely/Oddly enough (bizarrement)
Surprisingly enough
Ironically enough
Exemplifying
Let me give you an example
Let us consider this example
The best example I know is…
To quote an example,
Suppose that…
Miscellaneous
I’m sorry but I didn’t quite understand…
I think what she means is that…
I’m afraid I cannot find the right word
by far (de loin)
The same goes for…(il en va de même pour)
virtually (pratiquement, quasiment)
prone to (enclin à)
as part of (dans le cadre de)
under such conditions
let alone (sans parler de)
without regard for (sans égard pour)
as regards (en ce qui concerne)
in the future (à l’avenir)
currently (actuellement)
dramatically (de façon spectaculaire)
actually (en réalité)
at best, at worst (au mieux, au pire)
at the lastest/ at the earliest (au plus tard/ au plus tôt)
Back in the 1950s (dans les années 50) / By the year 2000 (d’ici l’an 2000)
at a time when (à une époque où)
Concluding
Lastly/ ultimately/ finally : enfin/ en dernier lieu/ finalement.
In conclusion I would say that… / Let me conclude by saying that…
All this goes to show that : cela montre/ démontre que.

110
Writing an abstract - Common mistakes
Transcript

Hi, my name’s Ben, I’m talking to you from Higher School of Economics, Academic Writing Centre.

Today, we’re gonna talk about the sexy subject of abstracts. Now, I want you to think about
abstracts as speed dating. This is both gonna sell you and your paper. The sexier you can make it,
the better.

Now I’m gonna read through the whole of the abstract to have a sense of where the argument’s
going, what we’re talking about in the general subject’s area.
(he reads the white board )

Now, if my trusted assistant can throw me a red pen, thank you, I’m gonna go through underlining
bits which I don’t really like. (

(1’18’’) So, here we go :

(he re-reads, underlining the mistakes)

111
(2’13’’) In my opinion, these mistakes can be broken into three groups :
1. Text organization
2. Vocab
3. Academic formalities

Now, a very good question would be : what on earth do you mean by text organization ?

Well, in this example, most clear, it’s all one sentence. You get bored by the time you get to the end.
Now, remember what I said about abstracts being like speed-dating ? You wanna grab the attention
of the reader and keep it.
If it’s one long sentence, they’ll get lost, they’ll move on to the next abstract … or the next person !

Vocab : here, there are a few mistakes like :

Words that just don’t exist
Words incorrectly used (whether an adjective in the place of a noun, or others)

Finally we’re talking about academic formalities. These are conventions that relate specifically to
academic texts. You can get away with using them in normal texts but with academic writing there
are some special rules. As soon as you learn them, you’ll never revert to mistakes.

Now, let’s take each one in turn, let’s start with vocab. (My trusted assistant… Thank you)
1. (3’28’’) (problems with vocab)

Now we gonna go through the vocab.

• So for me, “informatiks”, I didn’t know what that was until my trusted Russian assistant told
me it meant Information Technology or computer science.
• (3’41’’) Here we go : “utilizing”,. For me it would be much better to put using here. And if you
ever have a choice between a long word and a short word, go for the short word. A general
rule for all writing.
• (3’57’’) Now, “scientific”, we don’t need to use this word at all. This is an academic text, in
England, in America, we don’t really say scientific. I know that Russians like using it a lot but
we, to be honest, rarely use it.
• (4’15’’)“Methodologicals”. Methodological is an adjective. Here It’s being used as a plural
noun. Again, I don’t like this. So what should we put instead, Methods or methodologies. I
just go again with the rule of shorter word is better word.
• (4’34) The next word that I don(t really like is “correlation”. Now, in Western academic writing,
we usually use correlation only for statistics. Here I think it would be better to use the word
relationship, because that’s really what we’re talking about. We’re talking about in this
abstract a relationship between processor speed and software performance. A very sexy
subject as ya all can see.
• (5’00’’) Now, next word that really gets me going is “fewer”. There’s a basic lesson between
less and fewer. In short, if you can count something, say fewer.
Now we’re getting to the long part of the sentence, so make sure you’ve taken a big,
big breath. Ok ?
• I have a problem with four words. This one, this one, this one and this one.
Now the important thing you’ve got to have is :
• (5’26’’) what can you do with “performance” ?
Have more performance ? Not really. In this case we should go with higher.
• (5’36’’) Same here. you need to ask : can you have fewer speed ? Are you talking about
having fewer speed in a car ? No no no no, we’re talking about a lower speed. That’s the
best option here.

112
 • (5’48’’) Now “transpires”. Again we’ gotta think about whether this is the most direct word for
this particular situation. I think here it’s better to say lead : shorter and simpler. Again, you’re
keeping the date interested.
• (6’03’’) And can, again, we speak about “lesser performance” ? No, we just have lower
again. Immediately we’ve made it much, much simpler and it makes sense now.
• (6’15’’) Finally, we gotta look here. “Past researches”. Don’t know what that means. I think
really what we want here is just past research. We’re talking about stuff that’s already been
done, other studies, research not researches. And that’s it !

2. (6’35’’) (problems with academic formalities)

Now we gonna talk about academic formalities. What do I mean by that ? I mean the use of
acronyms, and use of these little bits like etc. and i.e.

• (6’47’’) acronyms : when you write an acronym for the first time, you gonna have to spell it
out, otherwise we won’t have a clue what you’re talking about. “OLS” might mean, I don’t
know !
▬ Trusted assistant, any idea ?
▬ Oh let me Sneeze ?
▬ Oh let me Sneeze ! Maybe ! I don’t think so !
Now, OLS actually means Ordinary Least Squares. Now, those of you familiar with statistics
will know that that’s a regression technique.
• (7’21’’) QCA : Qualitative Comparative Analysis. Now, for those of you familiar with
comparative politics… you’ll know exactly what that means. But you’ve gotta say, so that we
know what you’re talking about. Then after this, in the text, just put OLS, they can look back
and see exactly what it means.
• (7’43’’) Now, next, use of “etc.” This is one of my personal bugbears. The use of etc; is not
academic, has never been academic and can never be academic. It really is a lazy way of
saying you can go and do all the work. You’ve got to specify, and especially if here you’ve
put “among others”, you’ve already said that there are other things you could look at. You’re
putting etc. doesn’t really make sense.
• (8’09’’) Now, we move on to “i.e.” Again, not academic. It really means “that is to say”, but
here, in this case, just put “measure the variables”, make it much simpler, shorter sentence,
and again (he underlines i.e. again )not academic.

3. (8’26’’) (problems with organisation)

Finally we’re gonna talk about text organisation. For this particular abstract, I think there are
two important errors :

Firstly, it’s really really long and just one sentence

Secondly, there are some redundant phrases, we get rid of them, we move from a fat slob to a really
really svelte strong person that’s gonna really be successful in this speed-dating exercise. So, we
can think about chopping the whole thing up, in a bit, but now, let’s think about phrases that we can
take away that aren’t really needed.

• (9’00’’) For me, being devoted to, the actual problems and informatiks, we can get rid of that
whole thing. Being devoted to, you talk about being devoted to somebody for life if you really
love them; It comes to academia, you don’t really need to use it.
• (9’16’’) “Actual problems” another phrase I think that Russians are fond of using but we don’t
really use.

113
 • (9’22’’) And “Informatiks”, this is probably gonna be in a journal about Information
Technology so we don’t need to know about the subject area again. We can get rid of that
whole thing.
• (9’32’’) Next, “present article will be dedicated to elaborating”. Again, what does that actually
mean ? We know you’re gonna be talking about something, so you know you don’t need to
tell us that you’re gonna be talking about something, just tell us, get on with it. Take out this
whole thing.
• (9’50’’) And finally, I think this whole section is far too long. We need to think of a way we can
express this whoooole thing in a much simpler way. I think we need to talk about a
relationship. A relationship between one variable, which is processor speed, and another
variable, software performance. We don’t need to talk about one being high, being low, one
being low, being high, being in the middle, whatever… relationship.

Now we’re gonna turn this really really ugly abstract into something’s that clear, simple and direct.

(10’29’’ to 11’00’’ : yodelling)

(11’00’’) In my opinion this is a much better abstract. We’ve got short, simpler sentences, we’re
explaining the acronyms, both of them, got no etc., no i.e., we’ve got clear, guiding phrases. We’re
saying exactly what the findings are showing in a very simple way : a positive correlation (in this
case you can talk about it because we’re using statistics) between this variable and that variable. In
my opinion, this is going to win the speed date anytime :

(11’32’’) (He reads : )

(11’58’’) I’ve been talking to you today about abstracts as speed-dating; I’ve been speaking on
behalf of the Higher School of Economics, Academic Writing Centre.
Good bye.

114
 Will declining funding stunt
scientific discovery in the U.S.?
May 17, 2015

KARLA MURTHY: Loredana Quadro left Italy 19 years ago to pursue a career in
science here in the U.S.
LOREDANA QUADRO: The United States was always seen as the place to be a
scientist because there were a lots of opportunities.
KARLA MURTHY: So was it your dream to, you know, one day have your own lab?
LOREDANA QUADRO: Of course. Of course.
KARLA MURTHY: Quadro has now been running her own lab at Rutgers University in
New Jersey for almost 10 years. And Quadro has now been running her own lab at
Rutgers University in New Jersey for almost 10 years. And she’s built her career on
answering a very specific question: How vitamin A is absorbed by embryos and
understanding that basic function could ultimately help prevent birth defects.
LOREDANA QUADRO: When you actually understand or think you might have
understood a little tiny thing that is going on into a cell. It’s really rewarding.
KARLA MURTHY: But now, all of her years of work is in jeopardy. Like many scientists
working at a university, she depends on grants from the Federal Government to run her
lab. They pay for everything from supplies to her team of researchers. If Quadro doesn’t
get a new grant by July, she’ll be out of money.
KARLA MURTHY: So you’re in danger of losing your lab.
LOREDANA QUADRO: Yes.
KARLA MURTHY: The National Institutes of Health, the NIH, is the single largest
funder of biomedical research in the world. but over the last 13 years, the NIH budget
has actually declined more than 22 percent in terms of purchasing power.
And tighter budgets have meant that getting one of these coveted grants is even
more difficult. In the past, a third of all grants submitted were funded. Today it’s about a
sixth of all grants. And many say this hypercompetitive atmosphere is threatening not
only the careers of promising scientists but the advancement of scientific breakthroughs.
LOREDANA QUADRO: It’s very stressful
KARLA MURTHY: Quadro says that she’s constantly worrying about money. She
estimates that she spends about 80 percent of her time working on grants.
KARLA MURTHY: How does having to focus on grant writing, how has that affected
your work in the lab.
LOREDANA QUADRO: I don’t work in the lab. I can’t because I have to work on grant
writing most of the time.
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: People who could be doing experiments are instead writing,
rewriting, submitting, resubmitting, trying to get that grant. And what a terrible waste of
talent
KARLA MURTHY: Dr. Francis Collins is the director of the NIH and has been pushing
for more research funding.

115
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: Whether it’s in cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, basic science,
clinical applications, we’re at a remarkable moment scientifically. But paradoxically
we’re at about the worst moment we’ve been to support that, at least in this country.
KARLA MURTHY: One would think that when you’re in an environment that’s this
competitive for dollars, that only the best of the best science is gonna get funded.
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: Turns out that’s not true. Cause we can look back now, can
we actually say that the top sixth was better than the next sixth? Turns out we can’t.
You can’t tell them apart. So what does that say? That says we’re leaving half of the
great science on the table that’s coming to us now ’cause we can’t find the funds for it.
KARLA MURTHY: Dr. Collins recently testified before a House Appropriations
Committee, asking for a three percent increase to the NIH’s budget, enough money for
1,200 new grants. But Subcommittee Chairman Tom Cole warned that while everyone
supported biomedical research, a big increase to the NIH was not likely.
TOM COLE (R-OK): Given the reality of funding allocations, we might not be able to do
everything that the administration is proposing
FRANCIS COLLINS: Science is not a 100-yard dash. It’s a marathon. And what that
means is that the science we’re not doing today, because we don’t have the resources,
is hurting our future 10, 15, 20 years from now in ways that we don’t even know.
KARLA MURTHY: Why should it be, you know, the government’s responsibility to be
the primary funder for biomedical research? Why not foundations or private industry?
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: Private industry, frankly, is not going to do that. Their
stockholders are expecting a return on that investment, and increasingly expecting that
return to happen quickly in a matter of a couple of years.
KARLA MURTHY: And Dr. Collins says that philanthropy funds only a tiny fraction of
research compared to the NIH and often has a narrow focus on specific diseases.
JUDITH STORCH: He left academia.
KARLA MURTHY: Judith Storch is a colleague of Loredana Quadro’s at Rutgers. She’s
been a scientist for more than three decades and has seen the dramatic change in the
competition for science funding over the years. Her lab is just downstairs from Quadro’s,
where she studies how lipids move around in cells. Although it hasn’t been easy, she’s
been consistently funded during her career. She says having years of experience can
give senior scientists like her a leg up.
JUDITH STORCH: Part of the reason I think it’s easier for a senior investigator to get
funded than a junior investigator is because we have a track record.
KARLA MURTHY: And some in the next generation have decided to drop out
altogether.
JUDITH STORCH: We have graduate students that decide not to finish, we have
graduate students who finish and then go and do something entirely different. But
people are opting out like crazy.
KARLA MURTHY: Including Lesley Wassef-Birosik. She was Quadro’s first
postdoctoral fellow and came to the U.S. from Australia in 2006. But after seven and a
half years in Quadro’s lab, she decided to switch careers. She’s now working as a
medical writer.
KARLA MURTHY: I mean, that’s a big decision, to change course like that?

116
LESLEY WASSEF-BIROSIK: Yeah. It was a tough decision. I thought I could do it. But
I was very naive. I didn’t see how hard it was to get a grant. And no matter who you
spoke to, no matter which lab you spoke to, everyone would say, “It was tough.”
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: What wakes me up at night is this next generation and what’s
happening to them. And they’re invariably excited about the science that they’re doing,
but invariably anxious about where there’s a future
KARLA MURTHY: The environment for science funding has left some questioning
whether the United States will remain the same worldwide leader in science research
that attracted Loredana Quadro and so many others here.
A recent survey of scientists in the U.S. by advocates for more funding found that 18
percent were considering leaving the country to pursue their careers.
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: We are still the leader, but not by a lot. And I can’t help but
point to China in particular. In another four or five years, they will be spending more in
absolute dollars than we are. And the consequences are already apparent. China filed
more patents in biomedical research last year than the United States did.
KARLA MURTHY: I mean, if there is a biomedical breakthrough in China, won’t I still,
as a citizen here, benefit?
DR. FRANCIS COLLINS: But it’s the country that is in the lead that is gonna have lots
of the most immediate consequences. Research that goes on in the U.S. has the
highest likelihood of influencing our medical care in the short run. It also is the country
that’s gonna have the greatest economic benefit.
KARLA MURTHY: Dr. Collins points to the Human Genome Project, which he led
before becoming direcro of the NIH. A study estimated that each dollar invested led to
$178 in economic benefit for the U.S., including jobs, tax revenues, and additional
funding for genome research.
To help scientists with funding, the NIH is experimenting with different models of
funding, grants specifically geared towards younger scientists and allowing investigators
to re-submit grants multiple times. But for Loredana Quadro, time is running out. She
has received some bridge funding from her university and continues to work on grants,
including to the NIH.
KARLA MURTHY: Would you ever consider leaving this field?
LOREDANA QUADRO: It’s a very difficult question. If somebody doesn’t get funded for
five years, you are automatically out of the picture. It would be very tough to go back in.
And if this happens, I will have to make a decision.

117
1 The amount of oxygenated blood delivered to the brain by properly performed CPR
is a little less than / much less than / about the same as normal blood flow.
2 The number of people who died in traffic accidents last year in the UK was a little
less than / almost the same as / a little more than the number of people who
died of hyperthermia and cold-related problems.
3 The number of people killed by heroin each year in the USA is much, much more
than / much more than / about the same as the number of people killed by
aspirin.
4 A giraffe’s tongue is much longer than / a little longer than / about the same
length as a human tongue.
5 The number of people killed by alcohol and cigarettes each year in the USA is
about the same as / a little more than / much more than the number killed by
illegal drugs.
6 Hepatitis is much more / a little more / a little less / much less infectious than
HIV.
7 Smokers in their thirties and forties have about twice / three times / five times /
ten times as many heart attacks as non-smokers.
8 The average stay in hospital to have a baby in 1993 in the USA was just under
double / just over half / just under half the length of stay in 1970.
9 A dog has about 10 times / 100 times / 1,000 times the number of olfactory cells
in its nose as a human.
10 A dolphin’s brain weighs a bit less than / about the same as / a bit more than
an adult human’s brain.
11 The number of women with rheumatoid arthritis is about a third/ half / double /
three times the number of men.

Read the following page and guess if the unusual medical facts are true or
false. You will compete in two opposing teams and find out the truth about
your embarrassing bodies...
‘No, the real figure is more than double that.’
‘Not quite. This number is a tiny bit more.’
‘Not even close. This number is many, many times less than that.

118
1. A cough releases an explosive charge of air that moves at speeds up to 60
km/h.

2. A fetus acquires fingerprints at the age of three months.

3. A fingernail or toenail takes about 10 months to grow from base to tip.

4. A healthy individual releases 100g of gas in a single flatulent emission, or

about 482g in a day.

5. A human being loses an average of 30 to 60 strands of hair a day.

6. A sneeze can exceed the speed of 100 mph (161 km/h).

7. An average human drinks about 16, 000 gallons (227272 l) of water in a

lifetime.

8. An average human scalp has 100,000 hairs.

9. An average person uses the bathroom 4 times per day.

10. An individual blood cell takes about 40 seconds to make a complete circuit of
the body.

11. Beards are the fastest growing hairs on the human body. If the average man
never trimmed his beard, it would grow to nearly 9 m long in his lifetime.

12. Blood sucking hookworms inhabit 70 million people worldwide.

13. Every square inch of the human body has an average of 32 million bacteria on
it.

14. If it were removed from the body, the small intestine would stretch to a length
of 6,5m.

15. It takes 43 muscles to smile --- 17 to frown.

16. Lab tests can detect traces of alcohol in urine six to eight hours after a person
has stopped drinking.

119
17. Laughing lowers levels of stress hormones and strengthens the immune
system. Six-year-olds laugh an average of 300 times a day. Adults only laugh
15 to 100 times a day.

18. On average women say 7,000 words per day. Men manage just over 3000.

19. The average duration of sexual intercourse for humans is 2 minutes.

20. The average human produces 25, 23670 l of spit in a lifetime, enough to fill
four swimming pools.

21. The human brain is about 85% water.

22. There are 50658 km miles of blood vessels in the human body.

23. Though it makes up only 1 percent of our total body weight, the brain demands
20 percent of the body's oxygen and calories.

24. Three-hundred-million cells die in the human body every minute.

25. Women burn fat more slowly than men, by a rate of about 50 calories a day.

120
 New Year, New Lab :
Scientists share their 2016 resolutions across Twitter

By Karen Zusi | January 5, 2016

With vows to start 2016 on the right foot, scientists on

Twitter have found a community of resolution-makers
in the kickoffs of#LabGoals2016
by @drugmonkey,#ChemResolutions
by @MrMattDavenport,
and#SciResolutions by @realscientists. The hashtags
have attracted their own niche audiences, but many
share common themes.

Inspiration and support

@RBevins: “#LabGoals2016 Facilitate success of my trainees with higher impact
experiments, faster turn around on papers, and increased funding #UNL”
@okaysteve: “build a synergistic & warm lab where students' and postdocs' goals are priority
number 1 bc science is timeless and we are not #LabGoals2016”
@Prof_Riggins: “#LabGoals2016 encourage my postdoc to shine.”

Career advancement
@kristindownie: “#SciResolutions 1. bring back the boundary between lab & life 2. submit 2/4
languishing papers 3. find my research direction #LabGoals2016”
@DrGlitterbear: “#LabGoals2016 publish 13 manuscripts, get a score on an R01, resubmit 2
R01, 2 PhD student defend, submit tenure application, try not cry.”
@EKurdzo: “#LabGoals2016 Publish my dissertation work, defend my PhD, and move onto a
new and exciting project as a Postdoc in Boston area”
@SKZingales: “My #ChemResolutions and #LabGoals2016 are to pass my pre-tenure
review, submit 3 grants, 3 papers, and recruit 3 new students.”

Science outreach
@BiophysicalFrog: “Improve scicomm/tweeting/scicomm tweeting/writing in general. Truly
dedicate time to a) writing b) thinking #SciResolutions”
@EllenMellon_88: “@realscientists finish PhD and get back into science outreach and
#Scicom #SciResolutions”
@cenewman0: “#SciResolutions Also, do more outreach! Many fun & awesome
opportunities to reach Louisianians through @LSU_MNS.@realscientists”

Organization
@nano_Kyle: “This year I will clean my nmr tubes immediately after use #chemresolutions”
@slavabernat: “My #ChemResolutions for the new year: clean(er) bench and 100% labeled
tubes #RealTimeChem”
@Dr_JIJ: “I will wash my labcoat more than one a year. #ChemResolutions”
@zenbrainest: “#LabGoals2016 Goals? Geeze we just make it up as we go.”

121
 The Neuroscience of Star Wars

December 16, 2015, KNOWINGNEURONS.com

For the first time in over a decade, a new Star Wars film is upon us, and if you’re like the staff
of Knowing Neurons, your nucleus accumbens is firing off dopamine as fast as it can! Oh,
what’s that you say? Lightsabers, Star Destroyers, and the Force have nothing to do with
neurons, action potentials, and brain waves? Ah … I find your lack of faith disturbing.
Heads up! There are spoilers to come for Episodes I – VI, but not for the new J.J. Abrams
film.

Our journey begins in the carbon freeze chamber on Bespin. Much to our horror, space
pirate and reluctant hero Han Solo has been frozen in carbonite by the evil Lord
Vader. Though alive, Han persists in a state of suspended animation until he is rescued in
the next film. Is carbonite real? Could we freeze Harrison Ford in real life?
The chemical suffix –ite indicates an anion formed with oxygen. In the case of carbonite, this
would refer to the ion CO22-. Being a charged particle, carbonite would not be stable as a
pure substance; rather, it would need to be dissolved in solution or bound to another ion as a
salt. But fear not, future Sith Lords. The same malicious feat of freezing Captain Solo could
be achieved with liquid nitrogen. Nitrogen, which composes 80% of our air, condenses into a
liquid at a chilly -320°F. In our universe, liquid nitrogen is used for cryonics, the process of
preserving living organisms at extremely cold temperatures. Because cold temperatures stall

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the chemical reactions that decompose the body after death, a dying person could
theoretically preserve his or her body indefinitely. The body may then be thawed out in the
distant future after medicine finds a cure for the patient. In fact, cryonics already exists as a
private industry today! Because of the expenses of freezing an entire body for decades (or
centuries), many individuals opt to have only their heads frozen. This preserves the brain
and all of its rich synaptic connections that encode not only memory, but arguably the
nuanced personality of the individual. A considerable challenge of cryonics is ensuring that
ice crystals, which lyse cells, do not form during or after the freezing process. While a
human being has yet to be revived from cryonic preservation, goldfish frozen in liquid
nitrogen have been effortlessly brought “back to life.”
So, would Captain Solo survive the freezing process? Nobody really knows. But as with any
scientific experiment, statistical inference would be needed to learn more. In The Empire
Strikes Back, Vader freezes Han as a test to see if Luke Skywalker can be successfully
frozen alive and brought before the Emperor. While a great Sith Lord, Vader may not be
such a great scientist (no, please don’t Force choke me!). Freezing Han is really a case
study demonstrating only that it is possible to survive the carbon freezing without saying
anything about the probability of survival. For all know, Han’s case could be one in a million!

Later, near the end of The Empire Strikes Back, Luke loses his hand in a lightsaber duel with
Vader. Thanks tocybernetics, he later receives a perfectly human-looking prosthetic hand,
which he controls with his mind! We also see in the prequels that Luke’s father has many
prosthetic limbs. At the time Empire was filmed, functional prosthetic limbs were pure
science fiction. But today, thanks to the wonders of biomedical engineering, prosthetic limbs
are reality. Last year, Les Baugh became the first bilateral arm amputee to control his
Modular Prosthetic Limbs just by thinking about the movements. This remarkable
engineering feat from a team at John Hopkins has gone even further, as they collaborate
with DARPA to build the “Luke Arm,” officially called the DEKA Arm System. This FDA
approved arm can make even more realistic and complicated movements, which will
hopefully improve quality of life for amputees.
So how can thoughts operate machines? Electrical signals from the brain are read by a
computer using a brain-computer interface (BCI). These computers acquire brain signals,
analyze them, translate them into commands, and relay these commands to an output device,
such as a robotic arm. Recent studies found that monkeys, whose brain signals are
analyzed passively through the scalp using a technology called electroencephalography
(EEG), can easily accept mechanical arms as their own, using them to grab and eat food. In
the not so distant future, BCIs might also be able to receive sensory feedback, sending
information from the arm to the brain. This would give the user a sense of proprioception as
well as touch, allowing for faster reaction rates and skilled interaction with the outside world.

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In the original Star Wars film, Darth Vader warns the crew of the Death Star that technology
is “insignificant next to the power of the Force.” While the Force is a fictional concept, some
practices of the Jedi, includingmeditation, are real. During his furious lightsaber duel with
Darth Maul in The Phantom Menace, Jedi master Qui-Gon Jinn takes a break to peacefully
meditate as an energy field comes down between the two opponents. How does meditation
affect the brain? What benefits does it have for cognitive processes such as attention and
focus?
Zen practitioners, who have extensive experience with meditation, show powerful alpha
oscillations in EEG recordings. Alpha is a brain wave with a frequency of 8 to 12 cycles per
second, and it is observed during quiet relaxation, especially over visual brain regions when
the eyes are closed. In individuals inexperienced in meditation, alpha oscillations are
interrupted by distracting stimuli, such as loud noises. Experienced meditators, however,
show alpha oscillations that are relatively robust to distracting stimuli. Moreover, the
amplitude and spatial extent of alpha oscillations over the scalp is greater in experienced Zen
meditators.
But sitting several feet away from a dangerous Sith Lord, why is blocking out one’s
environment preferable to a state of hypervigilance? As it turns out, meditation-naive
individuals show less and less disruption of alpha oscillations as the distracting stimulus is
repeated, a phenomenon known as habituation, suggesting lessened awareness of the
environment. By contrast, experienced meditators do not habituate, showing a rather
modest disturbance of alpha oscillations each time the stimulus is repeated. It seems that
meditation allows for both inner focus and sustained awareness of the environment, a
balance that can be described as a blurring of the self with the environment.
While the Star Wars universe is often described as space fantasy, it is fun to consider which
elements are grounded in real science. When The Force Awakens opens this weekend, see
if you can identify which aspects of the movie relate to the brain and medicine! Grab your
popcorn, get your dopamine fix, and may the Force be with you!
~

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 Link words
Les mots de liaison (link words) permettent d'articuler les éléments d'une phrase ou
d'un texte et d'exprimer différentes circonstances.

◊ La chronologie
- first / for a start / to start with...
- then / next / secondly / afterwards...
- finally / last...
Ex: First, we'll visit Soho. Then we'll go shopping. Last, we'll go to the pictures.

◊ La cause, la suite, la conséquence, le résultat

- because / as / since (= puisque)...
- moreover / besides (= de plus) / and...
- consequently / therefore (= donc)...
Ex: Since you're so clever, why don't you do it?
She's good-looking; besides, she's charming.
It's raining, therefore I'm not playing tennis.

◊ Le contraste, l'opposition, la concession

- but / however (= cependant) / yet (= pourtant)...
- though, although (= bien que) / unlike (= contrairement à)...
- in spite of (= en dépit de) / despite...
Ex: It looks simple, yet it is very complicated.
Unlike his brother, he likes maths.
I understand her in spite of her accent.

◊ Le but, la finalité
- to (= pour) / in order to (= afin de)...
Ex: They went to Ireland in order to play golf.

◊ La condition
- if / provided (that) ou providing (that) (= pourvu que) / unless (= à moins que) /
otherwise (= sinon)...
Ex: Don't buy it unless you really want to.

Check you can find the most suitable linkword in the sentences below :
although as because but despite in order to otherwise
provided then unless

1. _________________ he is rich and famous, he is not happy.

2. You can borrow my car _________________ you bring it back tomorrow.
3. _________________ her reputation, she is not that good of a writer.
4. To start with I'll have a shrimp cocktail _________________, I'll try the lobster.
5. I work very hard _________________ get a promotion.
6. Don't cross that street _________________ you have to.
7. Let her go _________________ she's going to be late.
8. _________________ it's raining I'm taking my raincoat.

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 LES PRINCIPAUX MOTS DE LIAISON EN ANGLAIS

all the same malgré tout, quand même

after all après tout

Also, ... De plus, ... / De même, ... (préférer: moreover)

and et

as a consequence en conséquence, par conséquent

as a matter of fact en fait

as a result en conséquence

besides d'ailleurs

but mais

by the way soit dit en passant

despite malgré

either ... or ... soit... soit ...

eg / e.g. par exemple

... , for ... ..., car ....

for all that malgré cela

furthermore en outre, de plus

hence d'où

however cependant, toutefois

ie / i.e. c'est-à-dire

if not sinon

in addition de surcroît

in any case en tout cas

in/by comparison par comparaison

in/by contrast par opposition

in effect dans la réalité

126
in fact en fait

in other words en d'autres termes

in spite of... malgré...

in that case dans ce cas

in the first place, in the second place, en premier lieu, en second lieu,

in the same way de même

in this case dans ce cas

instead of au lieu de

moreover en outre, de plus

nevertheless / nonetheless néanmoins

notwithstanding nonobstant

on the contrary au contraire

on the one hand ... on the other hand ... d'une part ..., d'autre part ...

or rather ou plutôt, ou mieux, ou plus exactement

otherwise sinon, mais par ailleurs

over and above par dessus le marché

that is to say c'est-à-dire

then alors

thereby de ce fait,

therefore par conséquent

this is why c'est pourquoi

though malgré tout

thus par conséquent

to this end à cet effet

Answers to exercise p.1

1. although 2. provided 3.despite 4.then 5.in order to 6.unless
7. otherwise 8. as

127
Designing a scientific poster

128
American Journal Experts

Even if you're not invited to speak at your

next scientific meeting, you still have a great opportunity to share your results and
wow your fellow scientists at a poster session. A well-designed poster that efficiently
gets across your main ideas can make the difference between a lackluster5 poster
showing and a standard appearance.
Here, we'll go over some things to consider when doing a research poster,
from content and organization to increasing visual appeal.

Cut down on text

The mistake number 1 is to pack in ___________________________. Even
the most interested visitors to your poster are not prepared to stand for half an hour
and read the entire thing. So make it easy for them to get the gist6.
You don't need to __________________________________________and you don't
need to use full sentences. Use ___________________ .
Justifying your text on the left side can help make it easy to read. And as
always : "___________________________________".
Your figures are the heart and soul of your poster. Use them to your
advantage and don't ___________ them with large blocks of text that no one will
read.

Tell a story
Structure is just as important to a poster as it is to a paper. Present your ideas
in a logical order with your poster ____________________ facilitating this
organization. Keep in mind that people naturally read from ___________________
and from _______________________________
One popular option is to split a ____________________________ poster into
three columns. Regardless of the pattern you choose, make sure it's clear to readers
where to start and end.

Let your poster "breathe"

In designing your poster, don't be afraid of white or negative space. If you fill
every inch, your poster will look _________________________ and will be hard for
viewers to take in. In fact, as much as 40% of your poster should be blank. Use this
space _____________________ to draw attention to your most important messages.

5
lackluster : dull, lacking shine
6
gist : general idea

129
Choose the right color palette
Color can really _______________ your poster but be selective : only use
_________________________ and avoid those that are too bright or print poorly.
Don't even think of using patterns or dark colors for the background. These can be
distracting, hard on eyes and will also make your figures look bad. Keep it simple,
white is the __________________________ and the
____________________________.

Size matters
Even if your poster looks great and includes the right level information, if the
text is too small, it will annoy visitors and drive away your audience. A good
______________________ is to have everything visible from 6 feet away and
nothing smaller than 24 point.

Don't go crazy on the fonts

Avoid unprofessional fonts such as Comic Sans and don't include too many
different fonts. It will give your poster a ______________________ look. For your
body text, it's usually a good idea to use a Serif font. Those are the ones with the
extra stroke7 at the end of letters like Times New Roman which are easier to read
when small. For titles and _____________ pick a non Serif or Sans Serif font such as
Arial of Helvetica.

Think of a concise, interesting title

Short and sweet titles are usually better, because many conference
___________________ scan the poster session presentation titles to find the
presentations they don't want to miss. A good title that _________________ your
message and a well-written abstract can really draw people to your poster.

Re-figure your figures

Don't assume a cell where the figure can simply be slapped onto your poster;
simplify your graphs and provide titles and even arrows to help your readers along.
Consider _________________________ your images with more general descriptions
so that scientists from outside your specific field will still get the basics of a given
experiment. And summary figures do wonders for giving ____________________
the gist of your work. If it's artfully done, they might even stick around to hear more.

Of course remember to think about how to present your poster as well. An attractive
design will still fall ___________________ if you get flustered8 trying to explain it.
But master both and you're set to be a hit at your next poster session.

7
stroke : here, line or mark
8
flustered : agitated, confused

130
 GROUP WORK : DESIGNING A SCIENTIFIC POSTER

In groups of two or three students, turn a journal abstract or article

into a scientific poster. This is meant to be handwritten and drawn on a
single or double A3 poster.
Make it creative and attractive ! (use colors, graphs, etc.)
You will then present it to the rest of the group.

A few tips to help you

Don't forget that the audience will not seated but standing.

The title should be the most prominent block of text on the poster
(either center or left at the top).

The poster should quickly orient the audience to the subject and
purpose. It means a well-crafted title and supporting images or
graphs.

Design the individual sections of your poster so that they can be
quickly read.

The following templates may serve as inspiration. They're also
under their Powerpoint format on Moodle.

131
132
133
134
American Journal Experts

Even if you're not invited to speak at your next scientific meeting, you still have a
great opportunity to share your results and wow your fellow scientists at a poster
session. A well-designed poster that efficiently gets across your main ideas can
make the difference between a lackluster poster showing and a standard
appearance.
Here, we'll go over some things to consider when doing a research poster, from
content and organisation to increasing visual appeal.

Cut down on text

The mistake number 1 is to pack in too much information. Even the most
interested visitors to your poster are not prepared to stand for half an hour and read
the entire thing. So make it easy for them to get the gist. You don't need to include all
the information you would in a manuscript and you don't need to use full sentences.
Use bullet points .
Justifying your text on the left side can help make it easy to read. And as
always : "a picture's worth a thousand words".
Your figures are the heart and soul of your poster. Use them to your
advantage and don't bury them with large blocks of text that no one will read.

Tell a story
Structure is just as important to a poster as it is to a paper. Present your ideas
in a logical order with your poster layout facilitating this organization. Keep in mind
that people naturally read from left to right and from top to bottom.
One popular option is to split a horizontally-oriented poster into three columns.
Regardless of the pattern you choose, make sure it's clear to readers where to start
and end.

Let your poster "breathe"

In designing your poster, don't be afraid of white or negative space. If you fill
every inch, your poster will look cluttered and will be hard for viewers to take in. In
fact, as much as 40% of your poster should be blank. Use this space strategically to
draw attention to your most important messages.

135
Choose the right color palette
Color can really liven your poster but be selective : only use 3 to 5 colors and
avoid those that are too bright or print poorly. Don't even think of using patterns or
dark colors for the background. These can be distracting, hard on eyes and will also
make your figures look bad. Keep it simple, white is the easiest to work with and the
cheapest to print.

Size matters
Even if your poster looks great and includes the right level information, if the
text is too small, it will annoy visitors and drive away your audience. A good rule of
thumb is to have everything visible from 6 feet away and nothing smaller than 24
point.

Don't go crazy on the fonts

Avoid unprofessional fonts such as Comic Sans and don't include too many
different fonts. It will give your poster a chaotic look. For your body text, it's usually a
good idea to use a Serif font. Those are the ones with the extra stroke at the end of
letters like Times New Roman which are easier to read when small. For titles and
headings pick a non Serif or Sans Serif font such as Arial of Helvetica.

Think of a concise, interesting title

Short and sweet titles are usually better, because many conference attendees
scan the poster session presentation titles to find the presentations they don't want to
miss. A good title that conveys your message and a well-written abstract can really
draw people to your poster.

Re-figure your figures

Don't assume a cell where the figure can simply be slapped onto your poster
simplify your graphs and provide titles and even arrows to help your readers along.
Consider relabeling your images with more general descriptions so that scientists
from outside your specific field will still get the basics of a given experiment. And
summary figures do wonders for giving passers-by the gist of your work. If it's artfully
done, they might even stick around to hear more.

Of course remember to think about how to present your poster as well. An attractive
design will still fall flat if you get flustered trying to explain it. But master both and
you're set to be a hit at your next poster session.

136