Computer keyboard

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Not to be confused with keyboard computer.

Typing on a computer keyboard

Keyboard keys

Backlit keyboard

A Lenovo's ThinkPad compact USB keyboard

 A white standard wired chiclet keyboard (flat keyboard)

A traditional keyboard with bicolor keys

A computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device[1] which uses an arrangement of

buttons or keys to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline
of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the
main input method for computers.
Keyboard keys (buttons) typically have characters engraved or printed on them, and
each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However,
producing some symbols may require pressing and holding several keys simultaneously
or in sequence.[2] While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs
(characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute
computer commands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface for typing text, numbers,
and symbols into a word processor, text editor or any other program. In a modern
computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer
keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other key and reports all key
presses to the controlling software.
A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such
as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination. Although on Pre-Windows 95 Microsoft
operating systems this forced a re-boot, now it brings up a system security options
screen.[3][4]
A command-line interface is a type of user interface navigated entirely using a
keyboard, or some other similar device that does the job of one.

Contents

 1History
 2Types
o 2.1Standard
o 2.2Laptop-size
o 2.3Flexible keyboards
 o 2.4Handheld
o 2.5Thumb-sized
o 2.6Multifunctional
 3Non-standard layout and special-use types
o 3.1Chorded
o 3.2Software
o 3.3Projection
o 3.4Optical keyboard technology
 4Layout
o 4.1Alphabetic
o 4.2Key types
 4.2.1Alphanumeric
 4.2.2Modifier keys
 4.2.3Cursor keys
 4.2.4System commands
 4.2.4.1Break key
 4.2.4.2Escape key
 [Link].1ESC origins
 4.2.4.3Enter key
 4.2.4.4Shift key
 4.2.4.5Menu key
 4.2.5Miscellaneous
o 4.3Numeric keys
 4.3.1Multiple layouts
 4.3.2Layout changing software
 5Illumination
 6Technology
o 6.1Key switches
o 6.2Control processor
o 6.3Connection types
 7Alternative text-entering methods
 8Other issues
o 8.1Keystroke logging
o 8.2Physical injury
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

History[edit]
While typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the
computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication
derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes)
and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards
inherited their layouts.
As early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and
transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker
machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape.[5] The teleprinter, in
its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American
mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by
electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by
individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.
Earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to
include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. [6]
The keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-
multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the
keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The
development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the
development of the ENIACcomputer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input
and paper-based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an
electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape
(instead of paper) and data output.[7]
The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the
era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in
1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way
to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen.[8] However, keyboards remain central to
human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices
such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual,
touchscreen-based means of data entry.

Types[edit]
There are different types of keyboards available right now and each of them is designed
with a focus on specific features that suit special needs. [9]
One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such
as a separate numeric keyboard or two each of Shift, ALT and CTL for convenience. [10]
Further, the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a
single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes
(with modifier keys), or multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is
called a keypad.
Another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys.
The reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large
enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively, a tool is used for pressing small
keys.
Standard[edit]
A standard wired computer keyboard by Lenovo

Standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers
(0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm).
Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-
key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers
and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have
a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and
the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). The enter key is usually shaped differently.
Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional
keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer
keyboard, although many manufacturers imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are
actually three different PC keyboards: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT
keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ
somewhat in the placement of function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the
shift key.
Laptop-size[edit]

Keyboards on laptops usually have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.

Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance

for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not
have a numeric keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ
from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a
laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is
opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.
Flexible keyboards[edit]
Flexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards:
normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the short key distance.
Additionally, the flexibility allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage and
transfer. However, for typing the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast
majority[11] of flexible keyboards in the market are made from silicone; this material
makes them water- and dust-proof. This is useful in hospitals, [12] where keyboards are
subjected to frequent washing, and other dirty or must-be-clean environments.
Handheld[edit]

An AlphaGrip handheld keyboard

Handheld ergonomic keyboards[13][14] are designed to be held like a game controller, and

can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface.
Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a
standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at
once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital
letters on a standard keyboard.[15] Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move
around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away
from the computer.[16] Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a
trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld
device.[17]
Thumb-sized[edit]
Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in
keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where
there is a limited workspace.[18]
A thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as
the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.
Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They
are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric
keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. [19] These keys are collectively known as a
numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following
types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num
Lock and Enter key.
Multifunctional[edit]
Multifunction keyboard with LCD function keys

Multifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard.

Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple
PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters
FXT/Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users
have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a
single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources.

Multifunction keyboard with touch

Multifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable

function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs,
etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream
video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure
individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users
to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB,
audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional
keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.
Common environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance
workplaces for financial traders and control roomoperators (emergency services,
security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.).

Non-standard layout and special-use types[edit]

Chorded[edit]
Main article: Chorded keyboard
While other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded
keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many
combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a
board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to
enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of
one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded
keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded
keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as
on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't
have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases
because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become
proficient.
Software[edit]
Software keyboards or on-screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs
that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a
mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software
keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the
additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft
Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can
be controlled with the mouse. In software keyboards, the mouse has to be maneuvered
onto the on-screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software
writes the respective letter on the respective spot.
Projection[edit]
Projection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface.
The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to "watch" where the user's fingers
move, and will count a key as being pressed when it "sees" the user's finger touch the
projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very
small projector. Because the "keys" are simply projected images, they cannot be felt
when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in
their fingertips because of the lack of "give" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is
also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use
with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor.
Optical keyboard technology[edit]
Further information: Keyboard technology
Also known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric
keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.
An optical keyboard technology[20] utilizes LEDs and photo sensors to optically detect
actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter,
mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior
and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards [21] require at
least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the
actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in
a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal
beam).

Layout[edit]
Alphabetic[edit]
Main article: Keyboard layout
The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard, with
extra keys for computing.

The Dvorak keyboard layoutarranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press, which reduces
muscle fatigue when typing common English.

There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation

symbols on keys. These different keyboard layoutsarise mainly because different
people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in
different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics,
accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States keyboard
layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows,
[22]
 Mac OS X[23] and Linux.[24][25] The common QWERTY-based layout was designed early
in the era of mechanical typewriters, so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for
the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.
As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely,
inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of
jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but
nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they
were widely used. Alternative layouts such as Dvorak are not in widespread use.
The QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main
difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special
characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.
Another situation takes place with "national" layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in
Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for
Portuguese, French and other European languages may have a special key for the
character Ç ç. The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring
countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z
and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where
colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be
typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented
characters.
In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec,
keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard;
while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language
keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é" or "à" with a single
keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the
key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may
require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not
share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure
above).
Keyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin
character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can
be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by
signaling the operating system's input interpreter of the change, and some operating
systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character "\" as "¥" for display
purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark
"\" as "¥" or both.
Keyboards for other alphabets supported include:

 Arabic keyboard – In the Arab world, keyboards can often be switched between
Arabic and Latin characters.

Arabic keyboard

 Russian keyboard, which uses Cyrillic script

Russian keyboard

 Hebrew keyboard

A Hebrew keyboard lets the user type in both Hebrew and the Latin alphabet.

In Microsoft word, ALT+Shift allows shifting between languages. [26]

Key types[edit]
Alphanumeric[edit]
A Greek keyboard lets the user type in both Greek and the Latin alphabet(MacBook Pro).

The Control, Windows, and Alt keys are important modifier keys.

A Space-cadet keyboard has many modifier keys.

Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a
typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program,
text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce
different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic
characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The
numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is
depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other
functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys. The Space
bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys.
Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter.
Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough
so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system,
when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have
functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing.
In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its
normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain
programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming
the playback.
Modifier keys[edit]
Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the
two are pressed in combination. For example,  Alt + F4 in Microsoft Windows will close
the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just  F4  will probably do nothing,
unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier
keys usually do nothing. The most widely used modifier keys include the Control
key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for
keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards,
the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On Sun
Microsystems and Lisp machine keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for
Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn
key. "Dead keys" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the
following letter (e.g., the Compose key). The Enter/Return key typically causes a
command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is
typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing
applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.
Cursor keys[edit]
Navigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to
different positions on the screen.[27] Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a
specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys, scroll
the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of
the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line.
The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop. The Insert key is mainly used to
switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present
on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character
at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete
key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following
characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer
keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the
same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes
the preceding character. Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings
selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards
have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the
numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the
numeric keypad), and Caps lock.[28]
System commands[edit]

4800-52 mainframe / dumb terminal keyboard, circa mid 1980s. Note the obscure configuration of modifier and
arrow keys, line feed key, break key, blank keys, and repeat key.

The SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in
earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this
sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen
command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present
it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard.
Break key[edit]
The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to
teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications
line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch
between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem
connection. In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is
used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and
variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On
modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows
environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system
properties.
Escape key[edit]
Main article: Esc key
The escape key (often abbreviated Esc) "nearly all of the time" [29] signals Stop -[30] QUIT -
[31]
 let me "get out of a dialog"[29] (or pop-up window):[32] LET ME ESCAPE.
Another common application today of the Esc key is to trigger the Stop button in many
web browsers.[33]
ESC origins[edit]
ESC was part of the standard keyboard of the Teletype Model 33 (introduced in 1964
and used with many early minicomputers).[34] The DEC VT50, introduced July 1974, also
had an Esc key. The TECO text editor (ca 1963) and its descendant Emacs (ca 1985)
use the Esc key extensively.
Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more following
characters were interpreted differently, hence the term escape sequence, which refers
to a series of characters, usually preceded by the escape character.[35][36]
On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows
key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down
the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4,
2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.[37]
Enter key[edit]
The Enter key is located: One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the
numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do
something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered.
Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one typed and finished
typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press
enter and it would do spacing.
Shift key[edit]
Shift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the
shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance
the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to
type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that would appear would
be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the
Shift key are pressed.
Menu key[edit]
The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer
keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the
usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor
hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not
present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the
Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on
the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard
to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar
functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).
Miscellaneous[edit]

Multimedia buttons on some keyboards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.

Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the
alphabetic keyboard, often separated from the other groups of keys such as the function
keys and system command keys, which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols
(e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean
keyboards, there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use. Some
keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key);
Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as
volume controls; or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified
application or a command like minimizing all windows.
Numeric keys[edit]
When we calculate, we use these numeric keys to type numbers. Symbols concerned
with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols are
located in this group of keys. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign.
Multiple layouts[edit]
It is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch
between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an
external application. Microsoft Windows,[38] Linux,[39] and Mac[40] provide support to add
keyboard layouts and choose from them.
Layout changing software[edit]
The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver
software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric
character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application
programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many
programs are available, some of which are language specific.
The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing
keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of
software.
For example, Ukelele [sic] for Mac,[41] The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator[42] and
open-source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard
layout as desired.

Illumination[edit]
Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for
mobile use. Both keyboards built into computers and external ones may support
backlighting; external backlit keyboards may have a wired USB connection, or be
connected wirelessly and powered by batteries. Illumination facilitates the use of the
keyboard or keypad in dark environments.
For general productivity, only the keys may be uniformly backlit, without distracting light
around the keys.

Keys with integrated LED indicator lights

Many gaming keyboards are designed to have an aesthetic as well as functional appeal,
with multiple colours, and colour-coded keys to make it easier for gamers to find
command keys while playing in a dark room. [43] Many keyboards not otherwise
illuminated may have small LED indicator lights in a few important function keys, or
elsewhere on the housing, if their function is activated (see photo).
See also: ThinkLight

Technology[edit]
Main article: Keyboard technology
Key switches[edit]
In the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual
switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost from 80 to
120 USD and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types
were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a
magnet mounted on the switch plunger).[citation needed]
In the mid-1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in
switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to
the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals
at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.
[44]

In 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive-based switches,

one of the first keyboard technologies not to use self-contained switches. [45] There was
simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch
plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key
was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB
below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were
claimed to have the same reliability as the other "solid-state switch" keyboards such as
inductive and Hall-effect, but competitive with direct-contact keyboards. Prices of $60
for keyboards were achieved, and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent
keyboard manufacturer.
Meanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented technology: Keys
on older IBM keyboards[46] were made with a "buckling spring" mechanism, in which a
coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, triggering a
hammer that presses two plastic sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together,
completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound and gives physical feedback for the
typist, indicating that the key has been depressed. [47]
The first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches
(4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and keyboards were about two
inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally
landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first
company to introduce a keyboard that was only about one inch thick. And now
keyboards measure only about a half-inch thick.
Keytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard keytops
had a "dish shape" on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key legends must be
extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to
extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and
creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for
individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key
legends were produced by two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either
the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the
other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such
as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print
a whole keyboard at the same time.
Initially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and
the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the
plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse,
but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident
with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their
keyboards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate
quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish.
But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long
and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was
unique in using separate shells, or "keycaps", on keytop bases. This might have made
their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing
this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was
different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.
Three final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today, driving
the cost well under $10:

1. "Monoblock" keyboard designs were developed where individual switch housings

were eliminated and a one-piece "monoblock" housing used instead. This was
possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances
for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the keyboard so that
the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of
which could cause the keys to bind.
2. The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This
technology came from flat-panel switch membranes, where the switch contacts
are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so
that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is
made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost "reel-
to-reel" printing machines, with each keyboard membrane cut and punched out
afterwards.
Plastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of
electronic keyboards. Until "monoblocks" came along, GE's "self-lubricating" Delrin was
the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating
over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was
undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel
and even bind the key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes
sneak this into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the
key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or
prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable
for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding
advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-
inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of
ABS, with the keyboard monoblocks also made of ABS.
In common use, the term "mechanical keyboard" refers to a keyboard with individual
mechanical key switches, each of which contains a fully encased plunger with a spring
below it and metallic electrical contacts on a side. The plunger sits on the spring and the
key will often close the contacts when the plunger is pressed half-way. Other switches
require the plunger to be fully pressed down. The depth at which the plunger must be
pressed for the contacts to close is known as the activation distance. Analog keyboards
with key switches whose activation distance can be reconfigured through software,
optical switches that work by blocking laser beams, and Hall Effect keyboards that use
key switches that use a magnet to activate a hall sensor, are also available.
Control processor[edit]

Scanning procedure

Computer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key

codes[48] (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key
switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a
voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected
sequentially by scanning the X lines.
The first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used
discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by
General Instruments, but keyboards have been using the single-
chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. [49] The keyboard
switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a
detached keyboard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the
main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable
communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics
controls the illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights.
One test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key. The
keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the
main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator
lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift, alt and control
state of the keyboard.
Some lower-quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate
electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch "debouncing" or
inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the
same time, both circumstances which are explained below:
When pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may "bounce" against each other for
several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce
some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for
each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To
resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the
keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke.
Some low-quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple
keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are
down within the same milliseconds). Early "solid-state" keyswitch keyboards did not
have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other,
and early "direct-contact" keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation
diodes for every keyswitch. These early keyboards had "n-key" rollover, which means
any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key
depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a
"direct contact" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the keyboard
electronics can see a fourth "phantom" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines
of the three keys. Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of
keys at one time. "Three-key" rollover, also called "phantom key blocking" or "phantom
key lockout", will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys
is lifted. This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the
fingers can release previous keys), and games(designed for multiple key presses).
As direct-contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover of keys
was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys
so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for
example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on
the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so
that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality keyboard designs and
unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in
games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.
Connection types[edit]
There are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more precisely, to
its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly
found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and
the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple
Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.
Wireless keyboards have become popular. A wireless keyboard must have a transmitter
built in, and a receiver connected to the computer's keyboard port; it communicates
either by radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) signals. A wireless keyboard may use
industry standard Bluetooth radio communication, in which case the receiver may be
built into the computer. Wireless keyboards need batteries for power, and may be at risk
of data eavesdropping. Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar
panels using natural or artificial light. The 1984 Apricot Portable is an early example of
an IR keyboard.
Alternative text-entering methods[edit]

On-screen keyboard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility

Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text

that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example,
a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an
image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or
a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR
technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book
Search) and promises more for the future.
Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of
character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is
implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of
medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is
starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice
commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments.
Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a
physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically
present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more
frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of
input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.

Other issues[edit]
Keystroke logging[edit]
Unencrypted wireless Bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by
placing a covert listening device in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and
record Bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the
user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this
vulnerability.[50]
Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user
keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical
tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used
by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to
obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.
Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware
key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards.
Software keyloggers work on the target computer's operating system and gain
unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by
the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target
computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to
collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and
then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications
between the two devices.
Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them.
Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware
programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop
keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the
net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be
used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection.
This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or
her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely
by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between
typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window.
[51]

Keyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected
using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal
O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek
that "More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could
capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and
decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke," O'Farrell said.
"They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the
technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer." [52]
Physical injury[edit]

Proper ergonomic design of computer keyboard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which
can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. [53]Research suggests that the upright position
formerly advocated can lead to degenerative disc disease, and that a 45 degree reclined position is healthier. [54]
The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or
other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back.[55] The risks of injuries
can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of
times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse
of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the
shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned
so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be
adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp
table edges.[56] Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing. [57]
Some adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and
pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause
software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic
mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief.
By using a touchpad or a stylus pen with a graphic tablet, in place of a mouse, one can
lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands. [58]

See also[edit]
 Digital pen
 IBM PC keyboard
 Keyboard protector
 Overlay keyboard
 Table of keyboard shortcuts
 Dvorak
 Maltron

References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Computer
keyboards.

 How Computer Keyboards Work at HowStuffWorks

 "Art of Assembly Language: Chapter Twenty": The PC Keyboard
 Keyboard matrix circuits
 PC World. "The 10 worst PC Keyboards of All Time".
 IBM PC keyboard (Windows, ANSI US layout)

 v
 t
 e
PrtScn/ Scroll Pause/
Esc F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12
SysRq Lock Break

Num
Insert Home PgUp Lock
∕ ∗ −

Delete End PgDn

7 8 9
+

4 5 6

↑ 1 2 3
Enter
   0  . 
← ↓ →    Ins Del

hide

Keyboard keys

Compose

Control

Shift

Alt / Option (Apple)

AltGr

Meta

Command (Apple) / Windows (Microsoft)

Super

Hyper

Fn

Scroll Lock

Num Lock

Caps Lock
F-Lock

Arrow keys

Page Up/Page Down

Home

End

Esc

Menu

Enter/Return 
Carriage return

Backspace

Insert

Delete

Tab

Space bar

Numeric keypad

Language input

Function keys

Print screen

System request

Break/Pause

Power management keys (Power, Sleep, Wake)

Any key

Macro key

Keyboard layout

Keyboard shortcut

hide

Basic computer components

Keyboard

mage scanner
Microphone

Pointing device 
Graphics tablet

Game controller

Light pen

Mouse 

Optical
Pointing stick

Touchpad

Touchscreen

Trackball

Refreshable braille display

Sound card 
Sound chip

Webcam 
Softcam

Video card 
GPU

Monitor 
Screen

Refreshable braille display

Printer 
Plotter

Speakers

Sound card

Video card

Disk pack

Floppy disk

Optical disc 
CD

DVD

Blu-ray

Flash memory 
Memory card
 USB flash drive

Central processing unit 

Microprocessor

Motherboard

Memory 
RAM

BIOS

Data storage 
HDD

SSD

SSHD

Power supply 
SMPS

MOSFET 
Power MOSFET

VRM

Network interface controller

Fax modem

Expansion card

Ethernet

FireWire (IEEE 1394)

Parallel port

Serial port

PS/2 port

USB

Thunderbolt

DisplayPort / HDMI / DVI / VGA

eSATA

Audio jack

hide

Video game controllers

Arcade controller

Balance board

Digital camera

Dance pad

Gamepad

Gaming keypad

Interactive urinal

Joystick

Keyboard

Light gun

Microphone

Motion controller

Mouse

Musical Instruments

Paddle

Racing wheel

Remote control

Virtual reality headset

Wired glove

Analog stick

Arrow keys

D-pad

Physical Scroll wheel

buttons Select button

Start button

Telephone keypad

Trigger

Accelerometer

Haptic technology

Stylus pen
ensitive
Touchpad

Touchscreen

Trackball
Multitap

R.O.B.
Categories: 
 Computer keyboards
 Computer peripherals
 Computing input devices
 Flexible electronics
 Video game control methods