INTRODUCTION

In the early stages of scientific development, ―physics‖ mainly consisted of mechanics and
astronomy. In ancient times CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS of Alexandria (*87) explained the
motionsof the sun, the moon, and the five planets known at his time. He stated that the
planets and the sun orbit the Earth in the order Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn.
This purely phenomenological model could predict the positions of the planets accurately
enough for naked-eye observations. Researchers like NIKOLAUS KOPERNIKUS (1473-1543),
TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601) and JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630) described the movement of
celestial bodies by mathematical expressions, which were based on observations and a
universalhypothesis (model). GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642) formulated the laws of free fall
of bodies and other laws of motion. His ―discorsi" on the heliocentric conception of the world
encountered fierce opposition at those times.
After the renaissance a fast development started, linked among others with the names
CHRISTIAAN HUYGENS (1629-1695), ISAAC NEWTON (1643-1727), ROBERT HOOKE (1635-
1703) and LEONHARD EULER (1707-1783). Not only the motion of material points was
investigated, but the observations were extended to bodies having a spatial dimension. With
HOOKE’s work on elastic steel springs, the first material law was formulated. A general theory
of the strength of materials and structures was developed by mathematicians like JAKOB
BERNOULLI (1654-1705) and engineers like CHARLES AUGUSTIN COULOMB (1736-1806) and
CLAUDE LOUIS MARIE HENRI NAVIER (1785-1836), who introduced new intellectual concepts
like stress and strain.
The achievements in continuum mechanics coincided with the fast development in
mathematics: differential calculus has one of its major applications in mechanics; variational
principles are used in analytical mechanics.
These days mechanics is mostly used in engineering practice. The problems to be solved are
manifold:
• Is the car’s suspension strong enough?
• Which material can we use for the aircraft’s fuselage?
• Will the bridge carry more the 10 trucks at the same time?
• Why did the pipeline burst and who has to pay for it?
• How can we redesign the bobsleigh to win a gold medal next time?
• Shall we immediately shut down the nuclear power plant?
For the scientist or engineer, the important questions he must find answers to are:
• How shall I formulate a problem in mechanics?
• How shall I state the governing field equations and boundary conditions?
• What kind of experiments would justify, deny or improve my hypothesis?
• How exhaustive should the investigation be?
• Where might errors appear?
• How much time is required to obtain a reasonable solution?
• How much does it cost?
One of the most important aspects is the load–deformation behavior of a structure. This
question is strongly connected to the choice of the appropriate mathematical model, which is
used for the investigation and the chosen material. We first have to learn something
aboutdifferent models as well as the terms motion, deformation, strain, stress and load and their
mathematical representations, which are vectors and tensors.
 Figure 1-1: Structural integrity is commonly not tested like this
The objective of the present course is to emphasise the formulation of problems in
engineering mechanics by reducing a complex "reality" to appropriate mechanical and
mathematical models. In the beginning, the concept of continua is expounded in comparison
to real materials.. After a review of the terms motion, displacement, and deformation,
measures for strains and the concepts of forces and stresses are introduced. Next, the basic
governing equations of continuum mechanics are presented, particularly the balance
equationsfor mass, linear and angular momentum and energy. After a cursory introduction
into the principles of material theory, the constitutive equations of linear elasticity are
presented for small deformations. Finally, some practical problems in engineering, like
stresses and deformation of cylindrical bars under tension, bending or torsion and of
pressurised tubes are presented.
A good knowledge in vector and tensor analysis is essential for a full uptake of continuum
mechanics. A respective presentation will not be provided during the course, but the
nomenclature used and some rules of tensor algebra and analysis as well as theorems on
properties of tensors are included in the Appendix.
 Physical Quantities and Units
Definitions
Physical quantities are used for the qualitative and quantitative description of physical
phenomena. They represent measurable properties of physical items, e.g. length, time, mass,
density, force, energy, temperature, etc.
Every specific value of a quantity can be written as the product of a number and a unit. This
product is invariant against a change of the unit.

Examples: 1 m3 = 1000 cm3, 1 m/s = 3,6 km/h

Physical quantities are denoted by symbols.

Examples: Length l, Area A, velocity v, force F

l = 1 km, A = 100 m2, v = 5 m/s F = 10 kN
Base quantities are quantities, which are defined independently from each other in a way that
all other quantities can be derived by multiplication or division.

Examples: Length, l, time, t, and mass, m, can be chosen as base quantities in dynamics.
The unit of a physical quantity is the value of a chosen and defined quantity out of all
quantities of equal dimension.
Example: 1 meter is the unit of all quantities having the dimension of a length (height,
width, diameter, etc )
The numerical value of a quantity G is denoted as {G}, its unit as [G].
The invariance relation is hence G = {G} [G]
Base units are the units of base quantities. The number of base units hence always equals the
number of base units.
Example: Meter, second and kilogramm can be chosen as base units in dynamics
[l] = m, [t] = s, [m] = kg
For discriminating symbols (for quantities) from units, the former are printed in italics, the
latter plain.
Conversion between US and SI Units
Length: 1 m = 39.37 in 1 in = 0.0254 m
1 m = 3.28 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

Force: 1 N = 0.2248 lb 1 lb = 4.448 N

1 kN = 0.2248 kip 1 kip = 4.448 kN
Stress: 1 kPa = 0.145 lb/in2 1 lb/in2 = 6.895 kPa
1 MPa = 0.145 ksi 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa

Decimal Fractions and Multiples of SI Units

Fractions and multiples of SI units obtained by multiplication with factors 10±3n (n = 1, 2, ...)
have specific names and characters, which are generated by putting special prefixes before the
names and the characters of the SI units.

Factor Prefix Character

Factor Prefix Character

10-15 femto f

10-12 pico p

10-9 nano n

10-6 micro μ

10-3 milli m

103 kilo k

106 Mega M

109 Giga G

1012 Tera T
SI Units

SI = Système International d'Unités - ISO 1000 (1973)

SI units are the seven base units of the seven base quantities of physics, namely
Base Quantity SI Base Unit

Name Character

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s

Temperature Kelvin K

Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance mol mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

Derived units are composed by products or ratios of base units. The same holds for the
unit characters. Some derived SI units have a special name and a special unit character

Quantity SI Unit Relation

Name Char.

Angle radiant rad 1 rad = 1 m / m

frequency Hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 s-1
force Newton N 1 N = 1 kg m s-2
stress Pascal ` Pa 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
energy, work, heat Joule J 1J=1Nm
power, heat flux Watt W 1W=1J/s
electric charge Coulomb C 1C=1As
electric potential, voltage Volt V 1V=1J/C
electric capacity Farad F 1F=1C/V
electric resistance Ohm 1 =1V/A
electric conductivity Siemens S 1 S = 1 -1
magnetic flux Weber Wb 1 Wb = 1 V s
magnetic. flux density Tesla T 1 T = 1 Wb / m2
inductivity Henry H 1 H = 1 Wb / A
UNIT I BASICS & STATICS OF PARTICLES
Introduction – Units and Dimensions – Laws of Mechanics – Lame’s theorem, Parallelogram
and triangular Law of forces – Vectors – Vectorial representation of forces and moments –
Vector operations: additions, subtraction, dot product, cross product – Coplanar Forces –
Resolution and Composition of forces – Equilibrium of a particle – Forces in space –
Equilibrium of a particle in space – Equivalent systems of forces – Principle of transmissibility –
Single equivalent force.

1.1 Introduction to mechanics

Continuum mechanics is concerned with motion and deformation of material objects, called
bodies, under the action of forces. If these objects are solid bodies, the respective subject
area is termed solid mechanics, if they are fluids, it is fluid mechanics or fluid dynamics.
The mathematical equations describing the fundamental physical laws for both solids and
fluids are alike, so the different characteristics of solids and fluids have to be expressed by
constitutive equations. Obviously, the number of different constitutive equations is huge
considering the large number of materials. All of this can be written using a unified
mathematical framework and common tools. In the following we concentrate on solids.
Continuum mechanics is a phenomenological field theory based on a fundamental
hypothesis called continuum hypothesis. The governing equations comprise material
independent principles, namely

MECHANICS

• Body of Knowledge which Deals with the Study and Prediction of the State of Rest or Motion of
Particles and Bodies under the action of Forces

• Kinematics, being a purely geometrical description of motion and deformation of

material bodies;
• Kinetics, addressing forces as external actions and stresses as internal reactions;
• Balance equations for conservation of mass, momentum and energy;
And material dependent laws, the
• Constitutive equations.
Altogether, these equations form an initial boundary value problem.
2.3NEWTON ‘s Laws
Law I
Each body remains in its state of rest or motion uniform in
direction until it is made to change this state by imposed
forces.
Law II
The change of motion is proportional to the imposed driving
force and occurs along a straight line in which the force acts.
Law III
To every action there is always an equal reaction: or the
mutual interactions of two bodies are always equal but
directed contrary.

Force as a Vector

A force can be represented as a vector. Forces and vectors

share three major characteristics:

Magnitude
Direction
Location

The simple support structure in Figure 1.1.1 can be used to illustrate the three characteristics
that make a force equivalent to a vector.

Consider the tension load that occurs in the cable A-C due to the 100 pound load at D. The
Force FAC can be calculated using statics and is equal to 250 pounds. The 250 pound force
can be compared to the tensile capacity of member A-C. In this case, we will examine the
effect of the load on support A. Most connections are examined in terms of component
forces, not total force. The load at A will be decomposed into its orthogonal components. It
is helpful then to assign a convenient axis system which coincides with the force component,
Figure 1.1.2.

The component forces at A can be found using geometry, or

vector algebra. Figure 1.1.3 illustrates the resultant force
with its components. Since the X and Y axes are
perpendicular, the vectors FAC, FX and FY form a right
triangle. The aspect ratio of this triangle can be seen in the
geometry of the complete structure, Figure 1.1.1. The 3 foot
base and 4 foot height create
a 5 foot length for member A-C, forming a 3-4-5 triangle.
The relationship between the physical dimensions of the
triangle also applies to the force vectors. These relationships
are shown graphically in Figure 1.1.4 and mathematically in
Equations
1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3.

The 150 pound load at A is a tension force, normal to the

surface. If the connection were composed of a few small metal bolts, you can imagine how the
strength would be limited; making FX an important parameter. The 200 pound load at A is a
shear force which is tangent to the surface. If slippage were to occur at connection A, it
would be initiated by the shear force exceeding the shear capacity. This might occur if the
bolts at A were not securely tightened.
The analysis of the force components at A depend on treating the forces as vectors. Figures
1.1.3 and 1.1.4 show this representation. Any major force problem is best handled by treating
the forces as vectors that can be manipulated using trigonometry.

How Forces are Represented

here are two ways in which forces can be represented in written form:

1. Scalar Notation (Figure 1.2.1)

2. Vector Notation (Figure 1.2.2)
The method used depends on the type of problem being solved and the easiest approach to

finding a solution.

Scalar notation is useful when describing a force as a set of orthogonal force components. For
example: Fx = 15N, Fy = 20N, Fz = 10N.
Vector notation is useful when vector mathematics are to be applied to a problem, such as
addition or multiplication. Vector notation is somewhat simple in form:

F = 15i + 20j + 10k N.

The N term represents the unit of force, Newton’s in this instance.

Addition of Forces

Multiple forces can be applied at a point. These forces are known as concurrent forces and can
be added together to form a resultant force. If the component forces are orthogonal, then the
magnitude of the resultant force can be determined by taking the Square Root of the Sum of the
Squares (SRSS). The SRSS method is an extension of the Pythagorean Theorem to three
dimensions. Figure 1.3.1 illustrates the calculation of a vector magnitude using the SRSS
method.

Force components are sometimes not perpendicular to one another. In such cases the
resultant force vector can be found by adding the scalar values of the component vectors.
Figure 1.3.2 illustrates the vector addition of three scalars to determine the resultant force.
The magnitude of the resultant force in Figure 1.3.2 can be found by using the SRSS method:
F=[(42)^2 +(23)^2+(138)^2]^0.5=146 lbs.

The concept of a force polygon is useful when dealing with two non perpendicular forces. The
graphical representation of the vector addition can be drawn two ways. Figure 1.3.3 shows this
addition using either the Parallelogram Method or the Head to Toe Method.

Both methods result in a triangle, or a three sided force polygon. The sides and angles of this
triangle follow the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines. These laws can be used to determine
the magnitude and orientation of the resultant. Figure 1.3.4 outlines the process for determining
the resultant force vector.
Breaking Forces into Rectangular Components

Forces usually occur at arbitrary angles relative to the X,Y and Z coordinate system. In
considering the effects of a force it is sometimes better to deal with the orthogonal
components Fx, Fy and Fz. The transformation from the resultant force to its components is
shown in Figure
1.4.1.

If the resultant force was reported in vector notation, then determining the force
components from the scalar multipliers would be obvious. In many cases though, the
resultant force is known only by its magnitude, position and direction. If we must know
the force components, then we will have to apply mathmatics, in one of several ways, to
solve for Fx, Fy and Fz from F.

As an example of the transformation of forces, consider the sign support in Figure 1.4.2.
Suppose that we know that cable AB has a tension force of 500lbs. We could measure this
force attaching a gage to the cable while it is being loaded.
The component forces we wish to determine occur at joint A. Knowing these components
would be important in selecting the type of hardware necessary to hold the cable in place.
We can assign a coordinate system and draw what the forces will look like, as shown in
Figure 1.4.3.

There are several ways the components can be determined. The basic principle to
remember is that the shape of the cable is analogous to the shape of the force vector. This
means that the geometry, angle and aspect ratio of the cable and its dimensions are the same
as the resultant force and its components. Figure 1.4.4 illustrates this relationship.

The first thing we will consider is the aspect ratio. Since the coordinate system is
orthongonal, the Pythagorean theorem can be applied to determine the length of the cable.

With the length of cable AB known, the aspect ratio of the side over the diagonal can be
applied to determine the component forces.
Note that the force components should sum vectorially to the original resultant force.

The SRSS summation provided a good check of the calculation. Such checks should be
done when ever you work through a problem where errors can occur.

Direction cosines are another useful method for determining rectangular components. The
use of direction cosines is illustrated in Figures 1.4.5 and 1.4.6.
Projection of a Force Using the Dot Product
Some explanation should be given as to what A dot eb actually is. Assuming alpha, beta
and gamma represent the direction angles of A, and alpha prime, beta prime and gamma
prime represent the direction angles of eb, the dot product can be written as:

Knowing that i dot j, i dot k, and j dot k equals 0, the dot product reduces to:

Once the projected length of A onto B is known, the value of the angle between A and B can
be found:

The equations above will be used to determine the proportion of the bolt force being applied
in the direction of the slotted hole.

First, we must compute the direction cosines of F:

We already know the direction coines for the X' axis. They come from the unit vector e.
 Employing the dot product formula
yields:

FX' = 50.99[0.7845*0.6 + 0.1961*0.5 -

0.5884*0.624] FX' = 10.3N

Since the applied load along the direction of the slot is 10.3N, and the bolt strength is 35N in
that direction, X'-X' slippage will not occur. There is no guaranty that the connection will
not fail in another way though. To find out, we would have to examine the Y' and Z' loads
and strengths.

Law of Sines and Law of Cosines

Use the Law of Sines and Law of Cosines to determine the resultant force vector caused by the
two forces shown. Report your answer in vector notation.

a. Fx = 20.7# Fy = 125#
b. F = 125i + 20.7j #
c. F = 107i + 2.22j #
d. Fx = 95.2# Fy = 39.7#
e. None of the above

Resultant of Three Force Vectors

Three force vectors (F1, F2, F3) are simmultaneously applied at point A. The resultant of
these three forces is F.

Determine F3 such that: F = 3.2i + 5.5j + 2.9k kips. Write F3 in vector notation.
The unit kip represents 1000lbs, or 1 kilo lb. Sometimes this unit is just abbreviated as k.

a. F3 = 7.6i + 6.1j - 0.4k kips

b. FX3 = -1.2 kips

F Y 3= 4 . 9 ki p s
FZ3= 6.2 kips
FX3= 4.9 kips
F Y 3= 6 . 2 ki p s
FZ3 = -1.2 kips

c. F3 = -1.2i + 4.9j + 6.2k kips

d. None of the above

Forces on a Car Bumper

It's tow truck time. Yes, you turned right when you should have turned left. Fortunately, it
was just a snow filled ditch that you hit.

Because there is not much room to maneuver, the tow truck has to pull out your car at an
angle (not recommended in your owners manual). Your concern is whether to have the driver
pull out your old beater, or to leave it there without the plates.

Determine the force applied to the bumper by a tow cable tensioned at 3 kips. Report
your answer in scalar notation. Also, your bumper can only take 1500 pounds of force
sideways. Should you proceed with the pull?
 a. F = -2050i + 1370j - 1710k lbs.
Proceed with pull!
b. Fx = -2050#, Fy = 1370#, Fz =
-1710# Get out the shovel and
start digging!
c. Fx = 2050#, Fy = 1370#, Fz =
1710# Do not pull. Call for a
plow instead.
d. None of the force values above.
Try the pull since the driver is going to charge you anyway

Computing Direction Angles

A cable with a tension force of 15.1 kN is anchored at points A and B on a structure.

Compute the direction angles for the force applied at point A. The angles should be relative
to the local X', Y', and Z' axes. The local axis system at A is parallel to the global axis
system.
 .
Problems
0 0
[Link] resultant of the two forces, when they act at an angle of 30 is 50N. If the forces act at 60 ,
the resultant is 70N. Determine the magnitude of two forces.
2
2. A block of mass of 10 kg is moving in a cart with an acceleration of 10 m/sec with reference
2
to a fixed frame in the cart. The cart itself is moving at an acceleration of 100 m/sec relative to
fixed frame in the cart. Find out the net force on the block.

3. Two elephants of mass 10 ton each are standing such that distance between their center of
gravities is 10 m. Find out the force by which they pull each other. The value of gravitational

constant is .

4. Prove that if two forces P and Q act at a point and the angle between the two forces be ,
then the resultant is given by,

and the angle made by the resultant with the direction of force P is

expressed as .

5. A force is specified . Two planar forces are: and .

Add these forces and find out the angle which the resultant makes with the x-axis.

Equation of equilibrium

A particle is in equilibrium if it is stationary or it moves uniformly relative to an inertial frame of

reference. A body is in equilibrium if all the particles that may be considered to comprise the
body are in equilibrium.

One can study the equilibrium of a part of the body by isolating the part for analysis. Such a
body is called a free body. We make a free body diagram and show all the forces from the
surrounding that act on the body. Such a diagram is called a free-body diagram. For example,
consider a ladder resting against a smooth wall and floor. The free body diagram of ladder is
shown in the right.

When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus that
resultant force R and the resultant couple M R are both zero, and we have the equilibrium
equations

..............(2.1)
These requirements are necessary and sufficient conditions.

Let us understand equation (2.1) for different type of force systems.

1. Collinear forces: In this system, line of action of all the forces act along the same line. For example,
consider a rope being pulled by two players. Suppose one player is pulling with a force F1 and the other is
pulling with a force F2 . Then the resultant force, in the direction of pull of first player is (F1 - F2). By the
first condition of (2.1), it should be zero. Hence, for equilibriumF1=F2 . With this, the second condition
will also be fully satisfied, because moments of the forces about any point in the space will be of equal
and opposite magnitudes. Hence, the resultant moment will be zero.

2. Coplanar parallel force: In this system, all forces are parallel to each other and lie in a single plane.
Consider a See-Saw. Two children are sitting in the See-Saw and it is in equilibrium. If the weights of both
the boys are W1 and W2 and they are sitting at a distance of d1 and d2 from the fulcrum, then for
equilibrium, the fulcrum reaction should be

R = W1+W2 .................
(2.2)

Taking moment about fulcrum,

W1d1 = W2 d2...........
(2.3)

See
saw
Solution:

Position vector of BH = 0.6 m i + 1.2 m j - 1.2 m k

0.6 1.2 2 1.2
Magnitude, BH =
2 1.8 m
2

BH 1
BH (0.6 m 1.2 m 1.2 m k )
| BH| 1.8 i j
750 N
TBH |TBH |. BH
|TBH | BH 0.6 m 1.2 m 1.2 m k
| BH| 1.8 i j
m
TBH (250 N ) (500 N ) (500 N ) k
i j

Fx 250 N , 500 N , 500

Fy Fz
Solution:

Position vector of BH = 0.6 m i + 1.2 m j - 1.2 m k

0.6 1.2 2 1.2
Magnitude, BH =
2
1.8 m2

BH 1
BH (0.6 m 1.2 m 1.2 m k )
| BH| 1.8 i j
750 N
TBH |TBH |. BH
|TBH | BH 0.6 m 1.2 m 1.2 m k
| BH| 1.8 i j
m
TBH (250 N ) (500 N ) (500 N ) k
i j

Fx 250 N , 500 N , 500 N

Fy Fz

Addition of Concurrent Forces in Space

The resultant, R of two or more forces in space is obtained by

summing their rectangular components i.e.

R = F

i.e. Rx i + Ry j + Rz k = ( Fx i + Fy j + Fz k )

= ( Fx) i + ( Fy)j + ( Fz )k

Rx= Fx, Ry = Fy , Rz = Fz
2
R = R + Ryx z
cos x = Rx/R cos y = Ry/R cos z = Rz/R

Force Defined by Magnitude and two

Points on its Line of Action Contd
Unit vector, along the line of action of F = MN/MN

MN is the distance, d from M to N.

= MN/MN = 1/d ( dx i + dy j + dz k )

Recall that: F = F

F = F = F/d ( dx i + dy j + dz k )

Fx Fd x , Fd y dz
Fy , Fz
d d d
dx x2 x 1 , d y y 2 y 1 d z z 2 z 1
,
d dx2 dy
2
dz
2

dx dy dz
cos x , cos y , cos z
d d d

| |
x
y z
 o
FAC sin 75
FBC 3.73FAC .............(1)
cos
o
75
o o
Fy = 0 i.e. FBC sin 75 - FAC cos 75 - 1962 = 0
1962 0.26 FAC
FBC 2031.2 FAC ...... (2)
0.27
0.966
From Equations (1) and (2), 3.73 F AC = 2031.2 + 0.27 F AC
FAC = 587 N

From (1), FBC = 3.73 x 587 = 2190 N

Let x = Distance of resultant force (1500 N) from A

. . Moment of resultant force (R) about A
= 1500 x x
1500 x x = 250

.. x = 1500/250 = 0.166 m. Ans.

Hence resultant of the system is 1500NJ- acting at a distance
of0.166 m left to A
(ii) Equivalent system through A
This means to find a single resultant force and a single moment through A.
Single resultant force, R = 1500 N
Single moment through, A = 250 Nm. Ans.
The principle of transmissibility of forces has been already defined in Art.
1.3.5(see
page 16). It states that "If a force, acting at a point on a rigid body, is shifted to any
other point which is on the line of action of the force, the external effect of the
force on the body remains unchanged". For more details and explanation, please
refer to Art. 1.3.5. When a number of forces are acting on a rigid body, then these
forces can be replaced by a single force which has. the same effect on the rigid
body as that of all the forces acting together, then this single, force is known as
'Single Equivalent Force'. This single equivalent force is also known as resultant of
several forces. Hence a single force which can replace a number of forces acting on
a rigid body, without causing any change in th.')external effects on
the body, is known as single equivalent force (or resultant force).
----------( HIGHLIGHTS J~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(i) Introduction
1. Engineering mechanics is divided into statics and dynamics. The study of a body
at rest is known
as statics whereas the study of a body in motion is known as dynamics.
2. A quantity which is completely specified by magnitude and direction is
known as vector quantity.
3. A particle is a body of infinitely small volume and is considered to be
concentrated at a point.
4. Law of parallelogram of forces states that "If two forces, acting at a point be
represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their
resultant is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through
that point.
5. If two forces P and Q act at a point and the angle between the two forces be a,
then the resultant
is given by
2 2
R =√ P + Q + 2PQ cos a

and the angle made by the resultant with the direction of force P is expressed as
tan Ɵ = Q sinα/P+Q cosα

6. If the two forces P and Q are equal and are acting at an angle ex between them,
then the resul tant
is given by
R = 2P cosα/ 2 and angle made by the resultant is expressed as e = ~
2
7. According to Lame's theorem, "If three forces acting at a point are equilibrium,
each force will be
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces."
8. The relation between newton and dyne is given by One newton = 105 dyne.
9. Moment ofa force about a point = Force x perpendicular distance ofthe line of
action of the force from that point.
10. The force causes linear displacement while moment causes angular
displacement. Abody will be
in equilibrium if (i) resultant force in any direction is zero and (ii) the net moment
of the forces
about any point is zero.
11. Gravitational law of attraction is given by,
where G = Universal gravitational constant
ml' m2 = mass of bodies
r = Distance between the bodies
F = Force of attraction between the bodies.
(ii) Coplanar Concurrent Forces
12. Coplanar forces means the forces are acting in one plane.
13. Concurrent forces means the forces are intersecting at a common point.
14. Collinear forces means the forces are having same line of action.
15. The resultant of coplanar forces are determined by analytical and graphical
methods.
16. The resultant (R) of three collinear forces F I' F2 and F3 acting in the same
direction, is given by
R =: F 1 + F2 +F3' If the force F2 is acting in opposite direction then their
resultant will be, R = F I
-F2+F3•
17. The resultant of three or more forces acting at a point is given by,R = ~(m)2 +
(LV)2 , where LH

= Algebraic sum of horizontal components of all forces, LV = Algebraic sum of

vertical compo-
(LV)
nents of all forces. The angle made by the resultant with horizontal is given by, tan
e = (m)'
18. The resultant of several forces acting at a point is found graphically by using
polygon law or
forces.
19, Polygon law of forces states that if a number of coplanar forces are acting at a
point such th3l
they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken
in the same
order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing
side of the
polygon taken in the opposite order.
(iii) Coplanar Parallel Forces
20, Parallel forces are having their lines of action parallel to each other.
21. The moment of a force about any point is the product of force and
perpendicular distance
between the point and line of action of force.
22. Anti-clockwise moment is taken +ve whereas clockwise moment is [Link] - ve.
23. Varignon's principle states that the moment of a force about any point is equal
to the algebraiC"
sum of moments of its components about that point.
24. Like p:\ral1el forces are parallel to each other and are acting in the same
direction, whereas j
unlike parallel forces are acting in opposite direction.
25. The resultant of two like parallel forces is the sum of the two forces and acts at
a point betwE
the line in such a way that the resultant divides the distance in the ratio inversely
proportiol
to the magnitudes of the forces.
26. When two equal and opposite parallel forces act on a body at some distance
apart, the two for'
form a couple which has a tendency to rotate the body. The moment of this couple
is the prod1
of either one of the forces and perpendicular distance behyeen the forces.
27. A given force F applied to a body at any pointA can always be replaced by an
equal force appl
at another point B in the same direction together with a couple.

28. If the resultant of a number of parallel forces is not zero, the system can be
reduced to a sin
force, whose magnitude is equal to the algebraic sum of all forces. The point of
application oft
single force is obtained by equating the moment of this single force about any
point to the al
braic sum of moments of all forces acting on the system about the same point.
29. If the resultant of a number of parallel forces is zero, then the system may have
a resultf
couple or may be in equilibrium. If the algebraic sum of moments of all forces
about any poilll
not zero, then system will have a resultant couple. But if the algebraic sum of
moments of
forces about any point is zero, the system will be in equilibrium.
 UNIT-2–
EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES
elements of stable equilibrium – Moments and Couples – Moment of a force about a point and
about an axis – Vectorial representation of moments and couples – Scalar components of a
moment – Varignon’s theorem – Equilibrium of Rigid bodies in two dimensions – Equilibrium
of Rigid bodies in three dimensions – Examples

A rigid body is one which does not suffer deformation. It can be continuous

or connected members.

F2 F3

F1

P2

P1

F3 F1 F2

Continuous Member Connected Members

The forces acting on rigid bodies can be internal or external.

F1, F2 and F3 which are applied by an external force on the
rigid body are called external forces.

P1 and P2 which are forces internal to the rigid body are

called internal forces
 The external forces are completely responsible for the
bulk motion of the rigid body.
 As far as this bulk motion is concerned, the internal forces
are in equilibrium.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIVITY OF FORCES

Principle of transmissivity states that the condition of rest or

motion of a rigid body is unaffected if a force, F acting on a
point A is moved to act at a new point, B provided that the
point B lies on the same line of action of that force.

Cross Products of ForcesP and Q

The cross product of two vectors , P and Q yields the vector, V

which is written:

V = P x Q ( i.e V = P cross Q).

3.3.1 Magnitude: The magnitude of V is the product of the magnitudes

of P and Q and sine of the angle between their tails ( 0 < <

o
180 ). Thus : V = P Q Sin

Direction of Cross Product

The sense of V is such that a person located at the tip of V will observe

as counterclockwise the rotation through that brings the vector P in line with vector

Q. Knowing the magnitude and direction of V:

V = P x Q = (P Q sin ) v

Where: the scalar PQ sin defines the magnitude of V and the unit vector, v

defines the direction of V.

 V = PxQ V

Q PQ sin =V

P P

Laws of Operation

1. The cummutative law does not apply i.e. P x Q

Q x P
 Rather: P x Q = - Q x P
2. Multiplication by a scalar
 a ( P x Q) = (a P) x Q = P x ( a
Q) = ( P x Q ) a
3. The distributive law:
 P x (Q + S ) = ( P x Q ) + ( P x S
)
4. The associative property does not apply to vector
products
 (P x Q ) x S P (Q x S)
Cartesian (Rectangular) Vector Formulation

To find i x j, the magnitude of the resultant is:

o
i x j = i . j . sin 90 = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1.

Using the right hand rule, the resultant vector points in the k direction.

o
Thus i x j = 1 k. But: j x i = - k since the 90 rotation that brings

j into i is observed as counterclockwise by a person located

at the tip of - k.

Cartesian Vector Formulation

Contd.
Likewise: i x j = k i x k = -j i xi = 0 j

j xk= i j x i = -k j xj = 0 k i

kxi = j k x j =-i kx k =0

Rules: If a circle is constructed as shown, then the vector product of two unit vectors

in a counterclockwise fashion around the circle yields the positive third unit vector eg.

k x i = j. Moving clockwise, a negative unit vector is obtained e.g. i x k = - j.

Cross Product of Two Vectors P and Q
Consider the cross product of two vectors P and Q expressed in
Cartesian vector form:
V = P x Q = ( Px i + Py j + Pz k) x ( Qx i + Qy j + Qz k)

= Px Qx (i x i) + Px Qy (i x j) + Px Q z ( i x k)

+ Py Qx ( j x i) + Py Qy (j x j) + Py Q z (j x
k)

+ Pz Q x (k x i) + Pz Qy (k x j) + Pz Qz (k x
k)

= ( Px Qy ) k + Px Qz (-j) + Py Qx (-k) + Py Qz (i) + Pz Qx (j) + Pz Qy (-i)

V = (Py Q z - Pz Qy) i + (Pz Qx - Px Qz) j + (Px Qy - Py Qx) k

Equation For Product, V in Determinant Form

MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT
The moment of a force about a point or axis provides a measure
of the tendency of the force to cause a body to rotate about the
point or axis.

Moment of a Force About a Point

Consider a force, F acting at point A and a point O which lie
on the same plane. The position of A is defined by the position
vector, r, which joins the reference point O with A
Moment (Mo) of F about O is defined as the vector product of
r and F: i.e. Mo = r x F
Using the right hand rule, the direction of Mo can be found.
Curling the fingers of the right hand to follow the sense of
rotation, the thumb points along the moment axis so the
direction and sense of the moment vector is upward and
perpendicular to the plane containing r and F.
RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF THE MOMENT OF A
FORCE (CARTESIAN VECTOR FORMULATION)

Finally, denoting by the angle between the lines of action of the position vector, r

and the force, F, the magnitude of the moment of F about O is:

Mo = r F sin = Fd

Where: d is the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action

of F. In two dimensions:
F

F
 F

Moment, M0 = + F d (Counter-clockwise , +ve) Moment, M0 = + F d clockwise , +ve)

Equilibrium in 3 Dimensional Space

An ancient alien artifact has been located in neutral space. Three starships have been
dispatched to tow the object into their respective territories: Ferengi, Cardassian, and Romulan.
A Federation ship has been sent to keep the object within neutral space.

If the three opposing vessels are applying the following force vectors to the object, using
their tractor beams:
 Romulan: F2 = 4560i - 3010j + 12700kkN
Cardassian: F3 = 2100i + 15200j -
970kkN

Ferengi: F4 = -7350i + 4250j + 17600kkN

What force vector, F, should be applied by the Federation vessel to hold the object stationary?

a. F1 = -690i + 16440j + 29330k kN

b. F1 = 9760i - 4650j + 17800k kN
c. F1 = 690i - 16440j - 29330k kN

Moments Casued by Excentric Forces

e.
f. What is a moment? Everyone may not know the technical definition of a moment, but
they certainly have an intutive sense of what a moment is. A moment is when you push
on something slightly off center and it starts to spin. This tendency to spin or rotate is
caused by the force being applied multiplied by the eccentricity of the force. Figure
2.1.1 shows such a situation where a door is being pushed shut. The door is rotating
about the hinge.

g.

h. The moment, M, which is causing the door to rotate, equals:

i. M=F*d
j. Because moments are derived from forces times distrances, they will have units such as
inch-pounds, foot-kips, or Newton-meters. It is vital that you pay close attention to the
units. If you expect a moment in your answer, the proper units should occur. It is
helpful to write your units down when ever possible. Writing down units will help you
avoid errors and provide some tangible meaning to the numbers that you generate.
k. Enough soap box stuff. Moments play an important roll in the function of machines and
even body movement. Consider the simple example of a wrench in Figure 2.1.2. The
torque, or moment to the nut, is what would loosen it.
 l.
m. Notice how the 50# force is parallel to the y-axis. Is the moment to the nut 50# times
12" or 600 in-#? The answer is no. We can see why by breaking the load into components
that are parallel and perpendicular to the wrench handle, see Figure 2.1.3.

n.

o. Our wrench problem can now be redrawn, Figure 2.1.4.

 q. With Figure 2.1.4 you can see that the 17.1# load is pointed directly at the nut and its
eccentricity to the nut is zero. The 47.0# load, though, is perpendicular to the 12"
moment arm. As a matter of fact, if you considered F2 as a long line, the closest it
would come to the nut is 12 inches. This minimum distance is one of the properties
of a perpendicular.
r. The moment at the nut can be calculated as:
s
t. F1 does not come into play because its eccentricity is zero.

Moments Casued by Three Dimensional

Forces
Sometimes a force can exist that does not conveniently lie in the X-Y or Y-Z plane, such as a force
that is skewed in space and not pointed at the spot were moments can occur. Figure 2.2.1
illustrates such a force at A. The moments due to this force are to be calculated at origin O.

u.

v. The moment at O can be considered as the sum of three components Mx, My and Mz,
just
as the force at A can be considered the sum of three components Fx, Fy and Fz. By
first considering the moment at O in three parts, we can better visualize the value
of the moment and how it is oriented.
w. First break the force at A into the orthongonal components, Figure 2.2.2.
 x.
y. Now consider the possibility of a moment about the X axis. Notice how the Fx force is
parallel to the X axis. The Fx force will not cause any twisting or rotation about the X
axis. The Fy and Fz forces are not parallelto the X axis and they also have an eccentric
distance. Remember that moment equals force times eccentric distance. Note however,
that the forces cause twisting in opposite directions about the X axis. Some cancellation
has to occur. To account for this cancellation, we use the Right Hand Rule.
z. Imagine a moment about the X axis. This moment is like the curving of the fingers
when you form a fist with your rigth hand. The thumb points in the positive direction
along the X axis. The moment can be visuallized as a double headed vector. Any
moment vector that points in the positive direction is positive. Vise versa for negitive.
Figure 2.2.3 illustrates the Right Hand Rule.

aa.

bb. With the Right Hand Rule in mind, let us now compute Mx:
cc. Mx = 4#(16") - 2#(24") = 16 in-#
dd. We can apply similar logic to My and Mz. Remember moment as a double headed
vector, with positive consistent with the axis system. Also remember that moment
comes from force times the eccentric distance. Since Fz is parallel to axis Z, it contribute
no moment to My and Mz, respectively.
ee. My = 2#(20") - 3#(16") = -8 in-#
ff. Mz = 3#(24") - 4#(20") = -8 in-#

gg. Now we can illustrate the moment components at O in Figure 2.2.4:

 hh.

ii. We can also use the SRSS method to determine the magnitude of the resultant moment
Mo:
jj.
kk. Writing Mo in vector form:
ll. |Mo| = 16i - 8j - 8k in-#
mm. Finally, Figure 2.2.5 will illustrate the single force at A causing the resultant
moment at O.

nn.
oo.
pp.

Use of Cross Product to Calculate Three

Dimensional Moments
 The last section explained the calculation of a moment caused by a skewed excentric
load
in terms of perpendicular distances times orthagonal forces. There is another
method for determining moments based on the cross product. The cross product
automatically takes

into account the sign of the moments and the fact that Fx has no effect on Mx, Fy on
My
and Fz on Mz.
ss. Mathematically, the cross product can be represented by the three vectors shown in
Figure 2.3.1.

tt.

uu. The magnitude of the cross product is found from the sine equation; the direction of C
is
perpendicular to the plane formed by vectors A and
B. vv. The cross product can also be written in equation
form:
ww. A x B = (AyBz -Az By)i + (AzBx-AxBz)j + (AxBy-
AyBx)k
xx. An interesting graphical form of the cross product is illustrated in Figure 2.3.2.
The terms of the cross product are determined by adding or subtracting (which
ever is appropriate) the diagonal multiplication products.

yy.

zz. You might ask what does the cross product have to do with the moment caused by an
eccentric skewed load. Well, if A represented the vector going from the moment
location to the force, and B represented the force vector, then C would be the
moment vector caused by the force.
aaa. Let's check this out by running a cross product calculation on the eccentric
skewed force example from the last section. The example is redrawn in figure
2.3.3, with the relative position of the force shown as vector A.
 bbb.
ccc. The graphical approach is used in Figure 2.3.4. This approach is fairly easy to
remember, provided the proper sign convention is followed.

ddd.

eee. The dot product method for solving for a three dimensional moment is very
efficient. However, it does not provide a physical feel for how each of the
force components contributes to the moment components, as was seen in
section II-ii.

Use of Cross Product to Calculate Three

Dimensional Moments
The last section explained the calculation of a moment caused by a skewed excentric
load in terms of perpendicular distances times orthagonal forces. There is another
method for determining moments based on the cross product. The cross product
automatically takes
into account the sign of the moments and the fact that Fx has no effect on Mx, Fy on My
and Fz
on Mz.

Mathematically, the cross product can be represented by the three vectors shown in
Figure
2.3.1.

fff.

The magnitude of the cross product is found from the sine equation; the direction of C
is
perpendicular to the plane formed by vectors A and
B. The cross product can also be written in equation
form: A x B = (AyBz -Az By)i + (AzBx-AxBz)j +
(AxBy-AyBx)k
An interesting graphical form of the cross product is illustrated in Figure 2.3.2.
The terms of the cross product are determined by adding or subtracting (which
ever is appropriate) the diagonal multiplication products.

You might ask what does the cross product have to do with the moment caused by
an eccentric skewed load. Well, if A represented the vector going from the
moment location to the force, and B represented the force vector, then C would be
the moment vector caused by the force.
Let's check this out by running a cross product calculation on the eccentric skewed
force example from the last section. The example is redrawn in figure 2.3.3, with
the relative position of the force shown as vector A.
 The graphical approach is used in Figure 2.3.4. This approach is fairly easy to
remember, provided the proper sign convention is followed.

The dot product method for solving for a three dimensional moment is very
efficient. However, it does not provide a physical feel for how each of the force
components contributes to the moment components, as was seen in section II-ii.

Torque Applied to a Nut

A wrench is being used to tighten a nut. Because of obstructions, the wrench end can
only be pushed at a skewed angle. Determine the tightening torque, My, that is applied to
the nut.
 a. Tightening torque
= 20 ft-# b.
Tightening torque =
246 "-# c. Tightening
torque = 241 "-# d.
None of the Above

Balancing a Fulcrum

A balance beam is used to hold a weight in position. Two forces are applied at one end of
the beam; one force is known, the other is unknown. Based on the magnitudes and
dimensions given, determine the magnitude of force FB such that the fulcrum is in
equilibrium about the piviot. Assume that the piviot can resist any twisting about an axis
other than its principle axis of rotation.
 a. FB = 2.33 kN
b. FB = 19 kN
c. FB = 11.5 kN

Computing a 3D Resultant Moment

Compute the resultant moment at point A, caused by a force vector at point B.

Report the moment using vector notation.

a. MB = 1.4i + 1.5j + 1.7kkN·m

 b. Mx = -1.4kN·m, My = -0.9kN·m, Mz = -1.7kN·m
c. MB = -1.4i - 0.9j - 1.7kkN·m
d. MB = 3.2i + 1.3j - 2.5kkN·m

Opening a Cellar Door

A cellar door needs to be lifted open. You grasp the handle and pull, but at a skewed
angle relative to the door and hinge. If you pull with a force of 40 pounds(#), how mush
moment is applied toward opening the door, i.e. moment about the hinge axis?

a.
32.9 ft-#
b. 45.2
ft-# c.
473 ft-#

Opening a Cellar Door

A cellar door needs to be lifted open. You grasp the handle and pull, but at a skewed
angle relative to the door and hinge. If you pull with a force of 40 pounds(#), how mush
moment is applied toward opening the door, i.e. moment about the hinge axis?

a.
32.9
ft-# b.
45.2
ft-# c.
4 73
ft-# d.

Centroid of a Truck

A truck is driving over a bridge. The response of the bridge to the truck will partially
depend on the weight of the truck and the center of gravity of this weight. Based on the
axle load and configuration shown, determine the centroid of the truck weight. Report the
location in number of feet back from the front bumper.
Centroid of a Distributed Load

A 1.5m length of aircraft wing has a net upward pressure distribution as shown.
Determine the magnitude of uplift on the segment of wing and the X location of the
upward resultant force.

a. F = 0 . 6 1 0 k N, X =
1.66m b. F = 0.610
kN, X = 1.11m c. F =
0 . 4 0 7 k N, X = 1 . 6 6 m
d. Nothing above even comes
close.

Positive and Negative Areas

Determine the location of the center of gravity of the perforated plate.

X = 6.15", Y =
4.91" X = 4.61", Y
= 6.31" X = 6.00",
Y = 5.00" X =
5.79", Y = 5.13"
Concept of equilibrium
Any kind of object or component must have a net balance of zero forces and
moments applied to it in order to remain at rest. This type of balance is called static
equilibrium, where nothing is moving. Figure 4.1.1 illustrates a weight, pully and
block situatuion where all of the forces, including friction beneath the block, sum to
zero.

Upon inspection of the forces in Figure 4.1.1, you will see that they sum to zero.
Hence, there is equilibrium and no movement.
Determining the forces on a body is an important part of mechanics. It helps us
answer questions such as: Will an object move? How much force or stress is in
a part? Will something break? Do you think the stationary block in Figure 4.1.1
would move if the hanging mass was 50kg instead of 25kg? What if the cable
were to break?
There are two vital items which must be understood in order to evaluate forces.
These two items are boundry conditions and the free body diagram. Both of
these items can be used in a visual way to help see a problem such as the
previous weight and pully example.
Boundary Conditions

Boundary condition is a fancy way of saying what is happening at the edge of an

object. What happens at the edge depends on how an object is connected to, or resting
on its neighbor. Take the example of a soda can resting on a dashboard (Figure 4.2.1).

The question you should ask is: Is the can open? Because if it is, someone might get
soaked! Ok, Obviously this is an equilibrium problem. The can could slide off the dash,
tip over, or stay put.

Much depends on how the can is supported at the boundry. In this case, the boundry is
the base/dash interface. On the surface of the dash we can have friction and normal
forces (Figure
4.2.2).
Remember from physics how the maximum frictional force is a function of the

normal force: Friction Force = Normal Force * Friction

Coefficient

Where is the normal force coming from? In this case normal force is a fraction of the
weight of the can.

Figure 4.2.3 illustrates analysis of the sliding part of the problem. A typical can of soda is
125mm tall, 65mm in diameter, and weighs 3.90N. Let us suppose that the dash has
not been cleaned in a while and the coeffient of friction is 0.20.
Notice in Figure 4.2.3 that the tangential force (due to gravity) is about 25% greater than
the maximum possible friction force. Friction is what holds the can in place. So, in this
example, the can will move.

There are many more types of boundry conditions than just a can sitting on a dashboard.
How a boundry performs depends on its configuration. Figure 4.2.4 illustrates several
types of boundries that commonly occur. Notice how the type of reactionary force
developed depends on the type of boundry.
When we are faced with the problem of resolving the focus in a system, we must not
only think about the applied forces such as the loads or self weight, but also the
reactionary forces. There must be an equilibrium of all the forces combined.

The Free Body Diagram

The Free Body Diagram (FBD) is a graphical tool for evaluating forces and
equilibrium. A FBD is a drawing of an analysis problem showing the
components, relavent dimensions, and every applied force and moment present.
The rules of equilibrium apply to the FBD. All of the forces in the drawing will
sum to zero in the X, Y, and Z directions. Also, any set of moments at any
location on the FBD will also sum to zero. It is necessary to have the dimensions
drawn in odrer to figure out moments on the FBD.
The best way to think about FBDs is to draw them out. What is helpful about the
technique is that the rules apply to any object or component, regardless of the size.
Therefore, you can take a big problem and break it into smaller more manageable
pieces. Figure 4.3.1 illustrates a pair of pliers being used to grip a pin.

The pin is being pulled from a mechanism. The question that could arise here is
whether sufficient force is being used to pull out the pin, and whether the pliers
might slip off
due to inadequate friction.
First, let us create a FBD of the overall system, in order to determine the reaction
at the pin. It is helpful to consider the applied load as orthogonal components:
H = 25# * Sin40° =
16.1#

V = 25# * Cos40° =
19.2#
The FBD in Figure 4.3.2 shows all of the forces, both known and unknown.
Remember boundry conditions? The connection between the pin and the machine is
fixed. The fixed connection can resist a vertical and horizontal force, as well as a
moment about the axis coming out of the screen.

The reactions at point A are H, V and M. To compute these reactions we can

consider the moments about point A. They should all add up to zero. If we assign
counter clockwise as positive and write the equation for the moment at A:
 In a similar way, we will find that V=0. We are finally left with H, which we see by
must be 2 * 19.2# = 38.4# to the left. Can the pliers pull out the pin? Well, that
depends on how well it's jammed in there.
Now suppose that the pin does not move. Will the pliers slip off? Slippage would
occur if the sliding force exceeded the maximum available frictional force. The
applied sliding force is 16.1# per side. The frictional force must be calculated from
the normal force.
To determine the normal force, let us construct another FBD (Figure 4.3.3). This
time, we will use only one half of the pliers (that is where the pair comes from).
The bolt that would normally serve to hold the two parts together acts as a pin or
hinge, providing support to horizontal and vertical forces, but not movement.

Let's assume that the 16.1# force on the left end of the diagram is in line with point
B.
Now we will take moments about point B to determine N.

With the normal force known, the maximum friction force can be calculated. If you
look in reference for the coefficient of static friction of metal on metal, you will find
a value of about 0.5. So, in this case, the maximum sliding force that can be applied
before slippage starts is:
0.5 * 63.0# =
31.5#
Since the applied force is only 16.1#, the pliers will hold tight. As a matter of fact,
the pulling force could be nearly doubled before slippage occurs.
Two Force Members
Sometimes individual structural members only have two pins holding them in
place. One example might be a brace holding up one end of a platform, Figure
4.4.1.

For such a brace, a major concern would be the amount of force applied at the ends.
In a real world situation, a brace could buckle under too great a load. We would
therefore want to determine the load in the member and compare it to the allowable
capacity.
Recall that a pin support can resist forces in two directions, but not a moment. With
this in mind, consider what loads could be transmitted at the ends of the brace.
Figure 4.4.2 illustrates these unknown forces.

Because Figure 4.4.2 is actually a free body diagram, the vertical forces are equal
and opposite as well as the horizontal forces:
Also, because the pinned ends do not provide any moment resistance, taking
moments about C leads to:

Notice how the tangent ratio applies to the force components, just the same as if it
were to apply to the opposite and adjacent sides of the triangle. This means that the
triangle formed by V and H at B, or V and H at C is the same as the triangle formed
by the height and width of the diagonal brace. The direction of the force resultant
coincides with the direction of the member axis, or vector BC, to be exact. These
new resultant forces are shown in Figure 4.4.3. These two forces demonstrate the
meaning of a two force member.
 With the orientation of the forces at pin B, we can now procede to evaluate
the remaining structure.
Consider the free body diagram in Figure 4.4.4. For convenience, the reactions at A
and B are illustrated as orthogonal components. Notice how if H at B points to the
right (it has to if the brace is in compression), then H at A must point to the left for
balance.

If we consider the sum of the moments about A, we can determine V at B:

We know the relationship between V at B and H at B from the geometery of the

brace.

The load on the platform from the pin at B is equal and opposite to the load on the
brace from the pin. Figure 4.4.5 illustrates this conundrum:
With all the information in Figure 4.4.5, we can easily compute the force in the
brace member. We could use the SRSS method or trigonometery.

the brace is carrying nearly 7,500 pounds of force in compression.

Two force member are very helpful to have in a problem. They need not be straight,
as was shown in the example. Whatever their shape, the force travels in a straight
line from one pin to another. The orientation of the line can tell us the relationship
between the horizontal and vertical forces at the pins. This in turn will help us solve
for the other member forces.

Internal Hinges

In the two force member example of the previous section, a joint had to be
analyzed. This joint was an internal hinge which acted as a pin connection between
two members. An understanding of the load distribution in the structure hinges
(excuse the pun!) on knowing the magnitude of the forces transmitted through the
connection.
 Sometimes statics problems require the analysis of member forces. While other
instances ask for the magnitude of loads at a support. In any event, being able to
determine forces at a hinge is important. Another way to think of the problem is to
consider a hinge as a possible boundry condition that is equal and opposite
(balanced) for all the members at the joint.
A detailed example will be useful in demonstrating the concept of the free
body diagram, two force members, and the internal hinge.

The Lever that Looks Like a Chair

Example:
Figure 4.5.1 illustrates a lever mechanism with an applied load. For such a situation,
we would usually want to know what the support reactions are and how much force
is being transmitted through the pin connection (the hinge between part AB and
CBD) at B. Such a contraption could be part of a brake mechanism.

To analyze the mechanism, we can break it into parts. Component CBD is

illustrated in Figure 4.5.2 as a free body diagram. The 50 lbs force is shown in its
orthogonal component form to assist in the calculations.
Equilibrium Rules! Cried the rebels as they crashed through the gates of the castle.
And if that is the case, the sum of the moments about point D equals zero.

Once we know what H at B equals, we can then determine H at D. Treating H at

D as pointing to the right, and forces in the right hand direction as positive yeilds:

Now, recalling that positive means H at D points to the right tells that:

We still do not know what V at H and V at D equal. We can, however, put the free
body diagram of component AB to work, as is done in Figure 4.5.3.
Taking moments about A will yield V at B:

Applying vertical and horizontal equilibrium yields:

Now, knowing that V at B is a downward force on component AB tells us that V at

B is an upward force on component CBD. This is illustrated in Figure 4.5.4.
 Now, the only unknown left is V at D, which can be found by the vertical
equilibrium of member CBD. Treating V at D as a positive upward force:

All the forces were found for the pin at B and the reactions at A and D by using
equilibrium equations. Because the forces were originally unknown, a direction
had to be assumed. If the unknown came out of the equations as a positive, the
assumed direction was correct. If it came out as a negitive, the opposite direction
was correct.
The best advise for doing these types of analysis problems is to divide the
components
up at the connections or boundries. The smaller problems then make it easier to solve
the
multitude of unknowns one at a time.

Stability and Determinacy

Stability and determinacy are two areas of statics that are useful to know about,
when faced with mechanism problems in the "real world". Stability is the ability of
a component or structure to remain stationary or in a steady state. An airplane
flying forward could be said to be stable, but a ball sitting on a table is unstable.
What distinguishes these two examples is that the ball would move if slightly
pushed; there is no resistance. The plane, on the other hand, resists movement
because of the flight control surfaces.
Determinacy is the ability to compute support reactions using plan statics. That is,
if a structure is determinate, the equations of equilibrium are sufficient to find all
the forces. If it is indeterminate, there are too many reactions to solve for. This is
the classic problem of having more unknowns than independent equations to solve
for the unknowns. If there are to few reactions, then the structure is unstable.
Figure 4.6.1 illustrates the idea of instability due to lack of lateral restrain. Notice
how each one of the structures can have joint translation. Think about how these
situations could be corrected.
Another possible mode in which instability can occur is due to member rotation. If it
is possible for all the members to rotate with a common arc direction or common
center of rotation (instantaneous center), then the structure can move at the slightest
push. Figure
4.6.2 illustrates a few examples of how rotational instability can occur. Notice how
the arc movement is common at the joint in the left figure, or at the instant center
in the right figure.

The two examples in Figure 4.6.2 can be modified to prevent instability. To do this,
we can reorient the members or the roller planes, so that the common arc path or
instant center no longer exists. These stable structures are shown in Figure 4.6.3

Determinacy comes into play when dealing with stability. An indeterminate

structure is usually very stable. By its very nature, indeterminacy means that one or
more supports can be taken away and the structure will remain intact. Examples of
three indeterminate structures are shown in Figure 4.6.4. Imagine taking one support
away to make them determinate.

Being able to analyze indeterminate structures is beyond basic statics. It is helpful to

know what determinacy means and be able to recognize the instability situations
exist in engineering.
Three Hinge Arch

Determine the reation forces at supports A and C. Consider a force up and to the
right as positive.

a. H@A= 0.3kN, V@A= -3.8kN, H@C= -10.3kN, V@C = 3.8kN

b. H@A= 6.2kN, V@A= 10.3kN, H@C= 3.8kN, V@C = 10.3kN
c. H@A= -6.2kN, V@A= -10.3kN, H@C= 3.8kN, V@C = -10.3kN
d. None of the Above

Suspended Pile of Bricks

A beam is used to support a pile of bricks. You must figure out the tension in cable AB,
and the reactions at supports B and C. Draw out your solution in a sketch
a.

b.

c.

d.
Stability of a Component

A machine is to be built with an internal component that has three supporting bearings. Is
this component stable? If not, what would a stable design look like?

a. Stable

b.

c.

Bar and Linkage Structure

A small structure is composed of a cantilever bar and two linkages, held together by pins.
A
single load is applied at point B.

Determine the force in member CD and the reactions at joint E. Tension is positive in
CD, and the reactions at E are positive for upward force, a force to the right, and a
counter clockwise moment.
 a. Force in CD = -177#, H@E= -125#, V@E= 125#, M@E=
375 '-# b. Force in CD = -250#, H@E= -177#, V@E= 177#,
M@E= 531 '-# c. Force in CD = -177#, H@E= 125#, V@E=
-125#, M@E= -375 '-#

Shaft Supporting Two Pulleys

A shaft is used to support two pulleys. One rope is pulled in a horizontal direction while
the other is pulled downward. The size of the pulleys and the magnitude of the forces are
such that the moment about the shaft is zero.

Determine the reactions at supports A and D. Report the forces in terms of the sign
convention shown in the problem sketch.
a. H@A = -4.7#, V@A = -13.7#, H@D = -10.3#, V@D = -6.3#
b. H@A = 5#, V@A = 10#, H@D = 10#, V@D = 10#
c. H@A = 25#, V@A = 16#, H@D = 5#, V@D = 21#
d. H@A = 4.7#, V@A = 13.7#, H@D = 10.3#, V@D = 6.3#

Internal Forces and Equilibrium

e.
f. Several beams were investigated in chapter 4 from the perspective of external force
and
equilibrium. The primary focus was on the reactions at the internal connections and
external supports. Two aspects left to be investigated are the internal moments and
shears within beams.
g. The best way to consider internal beam forces is by the use of the Free Body Diagram
(FBD). FBDs are created so that the beam forces occur as solveable unknowns. Figure
5.1.1 illustrates the use of a FBD to solve for the shear, V, and bending moment, M,
in a cantilever beam.
 h.
i. When setting up a FBD to solve for V and M, it is best to first compute the support
reactions. An example that uses support reactions is shown in Figure 5.1.2.

j.

k. Once a FBD is properly set-up, a calculation can be made to determine the value of
the
forces on the cut face. Looking at the two previous examples, Figures 5.1.1 and 5.1.2,
you can see how the X value is important in calculating the value of the moment M,
and/or the value of the shear. These calculations are based of the equilibrium of the
FBD.

Internal Shear and Moment Equations

l.

The process of drawing the free body diagram of a beam leads to the unknown forces at a
cut face. It also creates an additional variable, X, that is the location of the cut face. With
X as a independent (controllable) variable, an equation can be written for V and for M.
Hence, V and M become functions of X.
m. Two major items must be considered before writing equations for V and M. The first
is that equations may not be necessarily be constant over the length of a beam; this
is depends on the discontinuities. The second consideration is the sign convention.
There must be a consistent understanding of what is treated as a positive and
negitive shear and moment.
n. Figure 5.2.1 illustrates the sign convention for shear and moment applied to an end
or a cut face of a beam.

o.

p. When solving for an unknown shear or moment, it is good to draw the V and M
forces as
positive, as shown in Figures 5.2.1 and 5.2.2. If the solution results in a positive V
or M, then you know the assumed direction is correct. If the solution is negitive,
then simply reverse the direction of either V or M, which ever is appropriate.
q. Figure 5.2.2 illustrates V and M equations derived from a beam example. In this
example, the V and M are written in terms of X. Since there is a discontinuity in load
in beam
ABC, at B, two sets of equations must be written.
s. You can see in Figure 5.2.2 that the equation for V and M can vary, depending on
what point of the beam is being considered. As a general rule, a new set of equations
have to be written for V and M when ever X extends beyond a new external load or
reaction.
t.

Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams

u.

You may know that a function of X can be plotted, especially a function that lies in a
plane. The same idea can be applied towards the equations for V and M. One way of
doing this is to compute the values of V and M for various values of X, then plot the
points on a graph. If the points were then connected by lines, the shear and bending
moment diagrams would appear. Figure 5.3.1 illustrates the construction of a V and
M diagram by connecting the dots.
w. The plot of the V and M diagrams have several simple but important items to note.
First off, the diagrams are clearly defined with a description of what they are, what
constitutes positive and negative, the important magnitudes, and the units being
written. Without these items, ambiguity could occur later in the calculation process.
x. The second interesting thing to note is that the load is a constant 5kN/m downward
along the beam. Knowing this, consider the relationship between the following 3
equations:

z. Do you see how shear is the integral of load, and moment is the integral of shear.
The 10
creeped in as a boundary condition or constant of integration, V = 10, when x = 0.
aa. The generation of V and M diagrams by the connect the dot method works, but it is
very slow. It may help in the very begining when you are just starting out. The real
tool to use here, though, is the knowledge of the fact that V and M are integrals of
the load, or conversely, L and V are differentials of the moment:

bb.

cc. The change in sign occurs because a downward load is usually considered as positive.
Yet, a downward load on the end of a beam would cause a negitive shear:

dd.

ee. The calculus based relationship between L, V and M can be used in two different
ways.
One method would utilize the integrals of the function to determine V and M.
This integration of equations is almost like what was done in Section 5.2. Indeed,
knowing that M is the integral of V would help in checking the solution.
ff. Another approach which benefits from calculus is the visual integration of load, shear
and moment diagrams. Visual integration is neat because an analysis can be made in
seconds rather than minutes. After several dozen practices, the method becomes
almost intuituve. Figure 5.3.4 illustrates several visual integration examples, with
brief explanations discussing the background theory.

v I +
Since Lis the derivative of V,
then a flat v diagram (zero slope)
means that no change occurs in L .

A section of M di agram of constant

s1 ope corresponds to a V di agram
of constant magnitude.

L
The s1 ope of the V di agram is
zero at the left end, corresponding
to a zero (or nearly zero)
distributed
1 oad. At the right end the V di
agram has a very steep negative s1
ope. The distributed 1 oad is at its 1
argest magnitude at the right end.

A maximum (or minimum) occurs in

the moment di agram when the shear
di agram equa1 s zero.

... . ,
C ou

An app1 i ed coup1 e causes equa1

ple
and opposite end reactions.

v +
The couple does not locally affect
the the shear diagram.

The coup1 e does cause a concentrated

moment, or discontinuity in the moment
diagram:

~causes a drop in M

J causes an increase in M

c1~--'f
A fixed end can support both
a shear and a moment. The
L w t~t the boundary va1 ues or the
va1 ues of the di agram
where theu start at.
 hh. The reason why V and M diagrams need to be drawn is because this is how many
member fail, regardless of whether these members are part of a bridge, fuel pump, or
computer power supply. One of the principal tenets of engineering is to understand why
things occur and anticipate or preclude failure. V and M diagrams provide such
information.
ii. The drawing of V and M diagrams start with the correct calculation of beams reactions.
These calculations themselves depend on proper modeling of loads and boundary
conditions. In a way, construction of V and M diagrams embody all the theory and
methods discussed in these past five chapters. It would be fitting to end this tutorial with
the statement:

jj.

Partially Loaded Span

Calculate the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the given partially
loaded span.
a.

b.
 c.

d.

Overhanging Cantilever

Calculate the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the given
overhanging cantilever beam.
a.

b.
c.

d.

Triangular Distributed Load

Calculate the support reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the given
beam.
a.

b.
 c.

d.

Writing the Equations for V and M

Write the shear and bending moment equations for segment AB and BC. Use an x that is
measured relative to the left end of the beam.

a. b.

c.

Fixed End Compound Beam

Determine the reactions and draw the shear and bending moment diagrams for the given beam.
b.
 c.

d.

In many statics problems, you must be able to quickly and efficiently create vectors in the
Cartesian plane. Luckily, you can accomplish your Cartesian vector creations easily with the
handy vector formulas in this list:

Force vectors and distance vectors are the most basic vectors that you deal with.

Checklist for Solving Statics Problems

Solving statics problems can be complicated; each problem requires a list of items to account for
and equations to create and solve. Solve statics problems with ease by using this checklist:

1. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire system.

 In addition to dimensions and angles, you must include four major categories of items on
a properly constructed free-body diagram:

Applied external loads

Revealed internal loads

Support reactions

Self weight

2. Write equilibrium equations to compute as many unknown support reactions as possible.

3. To solve for internal forces, identify the type of structure and write your equilibrium
equations.

After you identify the type of structure, you then know which technique to use to help
you write your equilibrium equations:

Trusses/axial members: Members are loaded with internal axial forces only. To solve,
you can use the method of joints or the method of sections.

Beams (bending members): Members are loaded with internal axial forces, shear forces,
and moments. To solve, cut the member at the desired location, draw a new free-body
diagram of the cut section, and write equilibrium equations.

Frames/machines: Members are loaded with internal axial forces, shear forces, and
moments. To solve, use the blow-it-all-apart approach to break the structure into smaller
 pieces. Look for internal hinges as common places to separate your structure and draw
free-body diagrams to solve for the connecting pin forces.

Cable structures: Members are constructed from axially loaded cables. Identify the type
of cable loading (concentrated, parabolic/uniform, or catenary). Compute the cable
tension at the location of known maximum sag (or vice versa).

Submerged surfaces: Members are subjected to fluid pressure. To solve, draw a free-
body diagram of the hydrostatic pressure diagram which is zero at the fluid surface and
linearly increases with depth. Include the weight of the fluid on objects with non-vertical
faces.

Calculating a Region or Load's Center of Area: Centroids

The centroid or center of area of a geometric region is the geometric center of an object's shape.
Centroid calculations are very common in statics, whether you're calculating the location of a
distributed load's resultant or determining an object's center of mass. To compute the center of
area of a region (or distributed load), you can compute the x-coordinate (and the other
coordinates similarly) from the following equations:

For discrete regions: You can break discrete regions into simple shapes such as
triangles, rectangles, circles, and so on.

For discrete shapes, creating a simple table such as the one that follows for each
coordinate can be useful. You can create as many rows as you need for as many regions
as you have.

Sample Table for Calculating Centroids for Discrete Regions

xi Ai xiAi

Region 1 x-distance for Region 1 Area of Region 1 Product of xi and Ai

TOTALS ----------------- Sum of all Ai rows Sum of all xiAi rows

For continuous regions: Continuous regions are usually defined by more complex
boundaries, so you must define them with mathematical equations such as the one that
follows:
Statics: Developing Shear and Moment Diagrams

Shear and moment diagrams are a statics tool that engineers create to determine the internal
shear force and moments at all locations within an object. Start by locating the critical points and
then sketching the shear diagram.

Critical point locations:

o Start and stop of structure (extreme ends)
o Concentrated forces
o Concentrated moments
o Start and stop of distributed loads
o Internal hinges
o Support locations
o Points of zero shear (V = 0) — for moment diagrams only.

Important features to remember when drawing the diagram:

o Concentrated forces cause an instant jump in shear.
o Concentrated moments cause an instant jump in moment.
o Order increases from load to shear to moment (that is, 1st order load diagram, 2nd
order shear, 3rd order moment).
o The slope of the moment diagram is equal to the value of shear.

o If the load area is positive, the change in shear is positive. If the shear area is
positive, the change in moment is positive.

Cartesian Vector Formulas for Solving Statics Problems

In many statics problems, you must be able to quickly and efficiently create vectors in the
Cartesian plane. Luckily, you can accomplish your Cartesian vector creations easily with the
handy vector formulas in this list:

Force vectors and distance vectors are the most basic vectors that you deal with.
Statics: How to Calculate a Force's Moment

In statics, moments are effects (of a force) that cause rotation. When computing equilibrium, you
must be able to calculate a moment for every force on your free-body diagram. To determine a
force's moment, you use one of two different calculations, as you can see in the following list.

Scalar calculation (for two dimensions): To calculate the moment about a Point O in
scalar calculations,you need the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance
from Point O to the line of action of the Force F.
 Vector calculation (for two or three dimensions): To compute the moment vector
about a Point O in vector calculations, you must determine the Force F in Cartesian
vector form and the position vector from Point O to the line of action of the Force F.

Chapter [Link] in structures

Forces

Forces acting on objects are vectors that are characterized by not only a magnitude (e.g. pounds force or
Newtons) but also a direction. A force vector F (vectors are usually noted by a boldface letter) can
be broken down into its components in the x, y and z directions in whatever coordinate system you‟ve
drawn:

F = Fxi+ Fyj + Fzk Equation 1

Where Fx, Fy and Fz are the magnitudes of the forces in the x, y and z directions and i, j and k are the
unit vectors in the x, y and z directions (i.e. vectors whose directions are aligned with the x, y and z
coordinates and whose magnitudes are exactly 1 (no units)).

Forces can also be expressed in terms of the magnitude = (Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2)1/2 and direction relative to
the positive x-axis (= tan-1(Fy/Fx) in a 2-dimensional system). Note that the tan-1(Fy/Fx) function gives
you an angle between +90˚ and -90˚ whereas sometimes the resulting force is between +90˚ and +180˚ or
between -
90˚ and -180˚; in these cases you‟ll have to examine the resulting force and add or subtract 180˚ from
the
force to get the right
direction.

Moments of forces

Ropes are a special case of a structure that can exert a force along the line connecting the two ends of the
structure as in the above example, but cannot exert any force perpendicular to that line. Ends with pins,
bearings, etc. also fit into this category. But most structural elements can also exert a force perpendicular
to the line. This is called the moment of a force, which is the same thing as torque. Usually the term
torque is reserved for the forces on rotating, not stationary, shafts, but there is no real difference
between a moment and a torque.
The distinguishing feature of the moment of a force is that it depends not only on the vector force itself
(Fi) but also the distance (di) (I like to call it the moment arm) from the anchor point at which it acts. If
you want to loosen a stuck bolt, you want to apply whatever force your arm is capable of providing over
the longest possible di. The line through the force Fi is called the line of action. The moment arm is the
distance (di again) between the line of action and a line parallel to the line of action that passes through
the anchor point. Then the moment of force (Mi) is defined as

Mi = Fidi Equation 2

Where Fi is the magnitude of the vector F. Note that the units of Mo is force x length, e.g. ft-lbf or N-
m. This is the same as the unit of energy, but the two have nothing in common – is just coincidence. So
one could report a moment of force in units of Joules, but this is unacceptable practice – use N-m, not J.

If the two lines are co-linear (as in a rope) then there is no moment. Note also that we have to assign a
sign

A
d
Line of action

Force Fi
to Mi. Typically we will define a clockwise moment as positive and counterclockwise as
negative.

In order to have equilibrium of an object, the sum of all the forces AND the moments of the forces must
be zero. In other words, there are two ways that a 2-dimensional object can translate (in the x and y
directions) and one way that in can rotate (with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the x-y plane.)
So there are 3
equations that must be satisfied in order to have equilibrium,
namely:
n n n
Fx,i 0; Fy, i 0; Mi 0 Equation 3
i 1 i 1 i 1

Note that the moment of forces must be zero regardless of the choice of the origin (i.e. not just at the
center of mass). So one can take the origin to be wherever it is convenient (e.g. make the moment of one
of the forces
= 0.) Consider the very simple set of forces below:

200 lbf

0.707 ft 0.707 ft

A C
0.5 ft 0.5 ft

45ū 1 ft 45ū
B 0.5 ft

0.707 ft 0.707 ft
141.4 lbf 141.4 lbf

D
 Figure 2. Force diagram showing different ways of computing moments
Because of the symmetry, it is easy to see that this set of forces constitutes an equilibrium condition.
When
taking moments about point „B‟ we have:

Fx = +141.4 cos(45˚) lbf + 0 - 141.4 cos(45˚) lbf = 0

Fx = +141.4 sin(45˚) lbf - 200 lbf + 141.4 sin(45˚) = 0

MB = -141.4 lbf * 0.707 ft - 200 lbf * 0 ft +141.4 lbf * 0.707 ft = 0.

But how do we know to take moments about point B? We don‟t. But notice that if we take moments
about
point „A‟ then the force balances remain the same and

MA = -141.4 lbf * 0 ft - 200 lbf * 1 ft + 141.4 lbf * 1.414 ft =

0.

The same applies if we take moments about point „C‟, or a point along the line ABC, or even a point NOT
along the line ABC. For example, taking moments about point „D‟,

MD = -141.4 lbf * (0.707 ft + 0.707 ft) + 200 lbf * 0.5 ft +141.4 lbf * 0.707 ft = 0

The location about which to take the moment can be chosen to make the problem as simple as possible,
e.g. to make some of the moments of forces = 0.

Example of “why didn’t the book just say that…?” The state of equilibrium merely requires that 3
constraint equations are required. There is nothing in particular that requires there be 2 force and 1
moment constraint
equations. So one could have 1 force and 2 moment constraint equations:
n n n
Fx,i 0; Mi, A 0; M j, B 0 Equation 4
i 1 i 1 j 1

where the coordinate direction x can be chosen to be in any direction, and moments are taken about
2 separate points A and B. Or one could even have 3 moment equations:
n n n
M i, A 0; M j, B 0; M j,C 0 Equation 5
 i 1 j 1 j 1

Also, there is no reason to restrict the x and y coordinates to the horizontal and vertical directions. They
can be (for example) parallel and perpendicular to an inclined surface if that appears in the problem. In
fact, the x and y axes don‟t even have to be perpendicular to each other, as long as they are not parallel to
each other, in
which case Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 would not be independent
equations.
This is all fine and well for a two-dimensional (planar) situation, what about 1D or 3D? For 1D there is
only one direction that the object can move linearly and no way in which it can rotate. For 3D, there
are three
directions it can move linearly and three axes about which it can rotate. Table 1 summarizes these
situations.

# of spatial Maximum # of Minimum # of Total # of unknown forces

dimensions force balances moment balances & moments

1 1 0 1

2 2 1 3

3 3 3 6

Table 1. Number of force and moment balance equations required for static equilibrium
as a function of the dimensionality of the system. (But note that, as just described, moment
equations can be substituted for force balances.)
Free diagrams

A free body diagram is a diagram showing all the forces and moments of forces acting on an object. We
distinguish between two types of objects:

1. Particles that have no spatial extent and thus have no moment arm (d). An example of this
would be a satellite orbiting the earth because the spatial extent of the satellite is very small
compared to the distance from the earth to the satellite or the radius of the earth. Particles do not
have moments of forces and thus do not rotate in response to a force.
2. Rigid bodies that have a finite dimension and thus has a moment arm (d) associated with each
applied [Link] bodies have moments of forces and thus can rotate in response to a force.

There are several types of forces that act on particles or rigid

bodies:

1. Rope, cable, etc.– Force (tension) must be along line of action; no moment (1 unknown force)

T
2. Rollers, frictionless surface – Force must be perpendicular to the surface; no moment (1
unknown force)
 F

3. Frictionless pin or hinge – Force has components both parallel and perpendicular to the line of
action; no moment (2 unknown forces) (note that the coordinate system does not need to be parallel
and perpendicular to the bar)

4. Fixed support – Force has components both parallel and perpendicular to line of action plus a
moment of force (2 unknown forces, 1 unknown moment)

5. Contact friction – Force has components both parallel (F) and perpendicular (N) to surface, which
are related by F = µN, where µ is the coefficient of friction, which is usually assigned separate values
for static (no sliding) (µs) and dynamic (sliding) (µd) friction, with the latter being lower. (2 unknown
forces coupled by the relationF = µN). Most dry materials have friction coefficients between 0.3 and
0.6 but Teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. Rubber (e.g. tires) in contact with
other surfaces (e.g. asphalt) can yield friction coefficients of almost 2.

N F = µN

Special note: while ropes, rollers and pins do not exert a moment at the point of contact, you can still
sum up the moments acting on the free body at that point of contact. In other words, MA = 0 can be
used even if point A is a contact point with a rope, roller or pin joint, and all of the other moments about
point A (magnitude of force x distance from A to the line of action of that force) are still non-zero.

Statically indeterminate
system

Of course, there is no guarantee that the number of force and moment balance equations will be equal to
the number of unknowns. For example, in a 2D problem, a beam supported by one pinned end and one
roller end has 3 unknown forces and 3 equations of static equilibrium. However, if both ends are pinned,
there are
4 unknown forces but still only 3 equations of static equilbrium. Such a system is called statically
indeterminate
and requires additional information beyond the equations of statics (e.g. material stresses and
strains, discussed in the next chapter) to determine the forces.

Examples

A useful methodology for analyzing statics problems is as follows:

1. Draw a free body diagram – a free body must be a rigid object, i.e. one that cannot bend in
response to applied forces
2. Draw all of the forces acting on the free body. Is the number of unknown forces equal to the
total number of independent constraint equations shown in Table 1 (far right colum)? If not,
statics can‟t help you.
3. Decide on a coordinate system. If the primary direction of forces is parallel and perpendicular to
an inclined plane, usually it‟s most convenient to have the x and y coordinates parallel and
perpendicular to the plane, as in the cart and sliding block examples below.
4. Decide on a set of constraint equations. As mentioned above, this can be any combination of
force and moment balances that add up to the number of degrees of freedom of the system (Table
1).

5. Decide on the locations about which to perform moment constraint equations. Generally you
should make this where the lines of action of two or more forces intersect because this will minimize
the number of unknowns in your resulting equation.
6. Write down the force and moment constraint equations. If you‟ve made good choices in steps 2 – 5,
the resulting equations will be “easy” to solve.
7. Solve these “easy” equations.
Magnitude and Centroid
e.
f. As mentioned in section 3.1, sometimes it is easier to deal with a distributed load as a
single force applied at the centroid of the load, rather than a load spread along a line or
over a surface. In terms of over all forces or moments, the distributed and concentrated
loads are equivalent. We will use this equivalency in order to determine where the
centroid of a load is located. We will also use integration or summation techniques to
determine the magnitude of the concentrated load.
g. Let's start simple. Suppose we have a 3 meter long beam that is supported at the ends
(Figure 3.2.1). Somebody evenly stacks a 6 kN load of bricks along the beam.

h.

i. We could also consider this beam as having a distributed load of 2 kilo Newtons per
meter (Figure 3.2.2).

j.

k. The magnitude of the load is 6kN downward, or 2kN/m times 3m. Notice how writing
out the units in the calculation gives a clearer indicaton as to whether we are dealing with a
concentrated load or a distributed load.

l. Now, where is the centroid of the distributed load? Because the load is rectangular in shape,
it may be obvious to you that the centroid lies at the middle. This is correct, but let us
approach the problem from a more general perspective.
m. Consider the idea that the moment caused by the concentrated force about the left end of the
beam is the same as the moment caused by the distributed load about the left end. Now, you
may ask "I can see multiplying 6kN times 1.5m to get the first moment, but what length do I
multiply 2kN/m by to get the second moment?" Well, this is where calculus comes in.
n. Imagine breaking the distributed load up into small differential widths of dX. Each
differential has a small force, 2kN/m * dX, and a location relative to the left end of the
beam, X. Figure 3.2.3 illustrates these details.

o.

p. The total moment effect is the summation or integration of all the differentials ranging
from X=0m to X=3m. This moment would be equivalent to the concentrated load times its
centroidal distance.

q.

r. We just spent the past few paragraphs proving that the centroid of the rectangular load
sits at the middle... big deal. But, the approach can be applied to any type of distributed
load. Especially ones where the centroid is not obvious.
s. By the way, how can we generally calculate the magnitude of the load? We do so by
integrating the load over the length or area where it is applied.
t. Let us look at a more complex load shape and determine the magnitude and location of
the equivalent concentrated load. Figure 3.2.4 illustrates a nonlinear load function applied to
a beam. Such a load might occur on a flat roof building during a snow storm. Drifting can
occur at locations where the roof steps up or down in elevation. Do you remember all the roof
collapses in the north-east during the winter of '93-'94. Those collapses were caused by drifts
such as the one we have here, plus the occasional rain that made the
snow extra heavy.

u.
v. Our objective here is to determine the total force due to the load and the location of the
centroid.
w. First, determine the total load by integrating the differential over the length of the beam
 (Figure 3.2.5).

x.

y. Now that we know the total force, the centroid can be computed using the equivalent
moment concept:

z.
aa. With the total force and location known, the support reactions and the internal beam
forces can be calculated (see next two chapters). Figure 3.2.6 illustrates the two
equivalent systems.

cc. Be forwarned, the equivalency noted here is only in terms of force and moment at the
supports. As far as the interior of the beam is concerned, the applied load has a real
distributed shape, not a single point location. This distinction will be very important in
Chapter 5.
UNIT -3 PROPERTIES OF SURFACES AND
SOLIDS
Determination of Areas and Volumes – First moment of area and the Centroid of sections –
Rectangle, circle, triangle from integration – T section, I section, - Angle section, Hollow section
by using standard formula – second and product moments of plane area – Rectangle, triangle,
circle from integration – T section, I section, Angle section, Hollow section by using standard
formula – Parallel axis theorem and perpendicular axis theorem – Polar moment of inertia –
Principal moments of inertia of plane areas – Principal axes of inertia – Mass moment of inertia
– Derivation of mass moment of inertia for rectangular section, prism, sphere from first
principle– Relation to area moments of inertia

Centroid and Areas

The equivalent force and centroid problem has many guises. In some instances, it is not force
that is being integrated, but volume or area. For instance, suppose that we have bar with a
triangular cross section that is under tension. If the bar is long (>> 4 times the width), we can
assume that the tension is uniform throughout the cross section, mid-length along the member.
This is known as a uniform stress distribution (Figure 3.3.1).

A question might arrise as to what the magnitude of the force is and where it ia located. Such
answers would be critical in the design of structural or machine components.
The force in this case is equal to the uniform stress multiplied by the cross section area. The area
can be found by integrating the cross section. The location of the force coincides with the
centroid of the shape. Figure 3.3.2 illustrates the geometry of the cross section in terms of X and
Y. Figure 3.3.2 also shows the computation of the area and centroid by integration.

Having computed the area, it can be said that the tension force is 3in^2 * 100 #/in^2 , or 300
pounds. The idealized location of the force is at the third point of the triangle.

Now, if you know your geometry (you are in college after all) you would have known the area
and center of gravity of the triangle from the begining. This could have eliminated the calculus in
Figure 3.3.2. The illustration of the calculus is helpful for understanding the calculations
necessary for more complex areas and functions. A table of common shapes, centroids and areas
can also be helpful. Figure 3.3.3 illustrates such a table.
Multiple Shapes

It is interesting to think how we started this chapter with a beam that carried a pile of bricks and
ended up with the area and centroid of wierd (vernacular term) shapes. This is because the two
problems are essentially the same. Another common form of this problem is the area and centroid
of a built up shape. That is, a shape composed of multiple elements, both positive and negitive in
nature.

Consider the shape in Figure 3.4.1. It might represent an angle iron used in bridge construction.
Just as with the triangular tension bar, the magnitude and location of the force in the angle will
depend on the stress level, area and centroid.

Since the angle is composed of two rectangular shapes, a descrete method can be used to
compute the area and centroid location.

Figure 3.4.2 illustrates the descrete computation of the area and centroid location. Note how the
tabular method is used to organize the data.
Sometimes, a shape may contain holes, such as an extruded aluminum bar. In such an instance,
the area and centroid can be computed by treating the shape as a positive solid and the holes as
negitives. Figure 3.4.3 illustrates a bar containing two holes along the axis. The section properties
are computed using the tabular method.
Cross Section & Centroid of a Shape

Determine the cross sectional area and centroid location of the structural shape. Note that the
centroidal location need not lie on the shape. If the tension stress was 5N/mm^2 , what would the
total force in the member be?

a.

b.

c.
d. None of the Above
 UNIT 4
DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES
Displacements, Velocity and acceleration, their relationship – Relative motion – Curvilinear
motion – Newton’s law – Work Energy Equation of particles – Impulse and Momentum –
Impact of elastic bodies.

• Plane kinematics of rigid bodies

• Plane kinetics of rigid bodies

• Force, Mass & Acceleration
• Work & Energy
• Impulse & momentum

• Introductory 3-D dynamics of rigid bodies

• 3-D kinematics of rigid bodies
• 3-D kinetics of rigid bodies

Ropes

Two tugboats, the Monitor and the Merrimac, are pulling a Peace Barge due west up Chesapeake Bay
toward
Washington DC. The Monitor‟s tow rope is at an angle of 53 degrees north of due west with a tension of
4000 lbf. The Merrimac‟s tow rope is at an angle of 34 degrees south of due west but their scale attached to
the rope is broken so the tension is unknown to the crew.

Monitor y

4000 lb

53ū

x
34ū Barge

Merrimac ??? lb
 Figure 3. Force diagram of Monitor-Merrimac system
(a) What is the tension in the Merrimac‟s tow rope?

(b) What is the tension trying to break the Peace Barge (i.e. in the north-south

direction)? (c) What is the force pulling the Peace Barge up Chesapeake Bay?

(d) Express the force on the Merrimac in polar coordinates (resultant force and direction, with 0˚ being
due
east, as is customary)

Define x as positive in the easterly direction, y as positive in the northerly direction. In order for
the Barge to travel due west, the northerly pull by the Monitor and the Southerly pull by the
Merrimac have to be equal, or in other words the resultant force in the y direction, Ry, must be zero.
The northerly pull by the Monitor is 4000 sin(53˚) = 3195 lbf. In order for this to equal the southerly
pull of the Merrimac, we require FMerrimacsin(34˚) = 3195 lbf, thus FMerrimac = 5713 lbf.
This is just the north/south force just computed, 3195
lbf
The force exerted by the Monitor is 4000 cos(53˚) = 2407 lbf. The force exerted by the Merrimac is
5713
cos(34˚) = 4736 lbf. The resultant is Rx = 7143
lbf.
The magnitude of the force is 5713 lbf as just computed. The angle is -180˚ - 34˚ =
-146˚.
Rollers

A mining car lies on a steep track 25˚ from vertical. The weight of the car and its ore is 5500 lb. The
center of gravity is 30 inches above the track, and located half way between its frictionless wheels, which
are 50 inches apart. The car is pulled by a cable attached to the car at a point 24 inches above the track.

(a) What are the forces (Fy,A, Fy,B) on each set of

wheels? (b) What is the tension (T) in the cable?

25ū A

Fy,A
25Ó 6Ó

24Ó 5500 lbf

Use a coordinate system with x aligned with the tracks pointing downward, and y perpendicular to the
tracks pointing upward. (Neither x nor y are parallel to the ground.) The weight of the car can be
broken up into a component 5500 cos (25˚) = +4980 lbf in the x direction and 5500 sin(-25˚) = -2320
lbf in the y direction.

(a) Take moments about points A and B as shown in the figure. These points have been chosen so
that the moment of two of the forces (due to the cable tension and through one set of wheels) are zero
in each case.

MA = +2320 lbf * 25 in + 4980 lbf * 6 in – Fy,B * 50 in = 0 Fy,B = 1758 lbf

MB = -2320 lbf * 25 in + 4980 lbf * 6 in + Fy,A * 50 in = 0 Fy,A = 562 lbf

(b) Fx = +4980 lbf + T lbf = 0 T = -4980 lbf

How to check? One could compute the forces in the y direction:

Fy = +562 lbf + 1758 lbf – 2320 lbf = 0 OK

 UNIT 5
FRICTION AND ELEMENTS OF RIGID BODY
DYNAMICS
Frictional force – Laws of Coloumb friction – simple contact friction – Rolling resistance – Belt
friction. Translation and Rotation of Rigid Bodies – Velocity and acceleration – General Plane
motion.

A 100lbf acts on a 300 lbf block placed on an inclined plane with a 3:4 slope. The coefficients of
friction between the block and the plane are µs = 0.25 and µd = 0.20.

a) Determine whether the block is in equilibrium

b) If the block is not in equilibrium (i.e. it‟s sliding), find the net force on the

block c) If the block is not in equilibrium, find the acceleration of the block

300 lbf
x
N F = µN
 100 lbf

Figure 5. Free body diagram for sliding-block example

(a) To maintain equilibrium, we require that Fx = 0 and Fy = 0. Choosing the x direction parallel
to the surface and y perpendicular to it,

Fy = N – (4/5)(300 lbf) = 0 N = 240

lbf so the maximum possible friction force is

Ffriction, max = µsN = 0.25 * 240 lbf = 60 lbf.

The force needed to prevent the block from sliding is

Fx = 100 lbf – (3/5)(300 lbf) + Fneeded = 0

Fneeded = -100 lbf + (3/5)(300 lbf) = 80 lbf

Which is more than the maximum available friction force, so the block will slide down the

plane. (b) The sliding friction is given by

Ffriction, max = µdN = 0.20 * 240 lbf = 48 lbf

so the net force acting on the block in the x direction (not zero since the block is not at equilbrium) is

Fx = 100 lbf – (3/5)(300 lbf) + 48 lbf = -32 lbf

(c) F = ma -32 lbf = 300 lbm *

acceleration acceleration = (-32

lbf/300 lbm) ???

what does this mean? lbf/lbm has units of force/mass, so it is an acceleration. But how to
convert to
something useful like ft/sec2? Multiply by 1 in the funny form of gc = 1 = 32.174 lbm ft / lbf
sec2, of course!

acceleration = (-32 lbf/300 lbm) (32 lbmft / lbf sec2) = -3.43 ft/sec2

or, since gearth = 32.174 ft/sec2,

acceleration = (-3.43 ft/sec2)/(32.174 ft/sec2gearth) = -0.107 gearth.

The negative sign indicates the acceleration is in the –x direction, i.e. down the slope of course.

A good function test is that the acceleration has to be less than 1 gearth, which is what you would
get if you dropped the block vertically in a frictionless environment. Obviously a block sliding
down a slope (not vertical) with friction and with an external force acting up the slope must have
a smaller acceleration.

Second example with friction

A car of weight W is equipped with rubber tires with coefficient of static friction µs. Unlike the

mining cart example, there is no cable. The car is on a ramp of angle with respect to horizontal.

The center of gravity of the vehicle is a distance “c” above the ramp, a distance “a” behind the front

wheels, and a distance “b” in

front of the rear wheels.

 Figure 6. Free body diagram for car-on-ramp example

(a) What is the minimum µs required to keep the car from sliding down the ramp?

The unknowns are the resulting forces at the wheels (Fy,A and Fy,B) and the coefficient of
friction µs. Taking Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and MA = 0 yields, respectively,

-µsFy,A - µsFy,B + Wsin = 0

Fy,A +Fy,B - Wcos = 0

(Wsin )(c) + (Wcos )(a) – Fy,B(a+b) = 0

Which may be solved to obtain

b cos( ) c sin( ) a cos( ) c sin( ) sin( )

Fy,A W ;F ;s tan( )
a b cos( )
W y,B
a b
 Note the function tests

1) For = 0, µs = tan( ) = 0 (no friction required to keep the car from sliding on a level road)
2) As increases, the friction coefficient µs required to keep the car from sliding increases
3) For = 0, Fy,A = (b/(a+b)) and Fy,B = (a/(a+b)) (more weight on the wheels closer to the
center of gravity
4) Because of the – sign on the 2nd term in the numerator of Fy,A (-c sin( )) and the + sign in the
2nd term in the numerator of Fy,B (+c sin( )), as increases, there is a transfer of weight from
the front wheels to the rear wheels.

Note also that we could have also tried Fy = 0, MA and MB = 0:

Fy,A + Fy,B - Wcos = 0

(Wsin )(c) + (Wcos )(a) – Fy,B(a+b) = 0

(Wsin )(c) - (Wcos )(b) + Fy,A(a+b) = 0

In which case, the second equation could have been subtracted from the third to obtain:

Fy,A + Fy,B - Wcos = 0

which is the same as the first equation. So the three equations are not independent of each other, and
we can‟t solve the system. What‟s wrong? The coefficient of friction µs doesn’t appear in the set of
equations Fx = 0, MA and MB = 0. We need to have each of the three unknownsFy,A, Fy,B and µs in
at least one of the three equations. The set Fx = 0, MA and MB = 0 doesn‟t satisfy that criterion.

(b) At what angle will the car tip over backwards, assuming that it doesn‟t start sliding down the ramp at a
smaller angle due to low µs?

This will occur when Fy,A = 0, i.e. when sin( )/cos( ) = tan( ) = b/c. This is reasonable because
the tip-over angle should increase when c is made larger (center of gravity closer to the ground)
or b made smaller (center of gravity shifted forward). Notice also that it doesn‟t depend on µs, that
is, as long as it doesn‟t slide due to low µs, the tip-over angle only depends on the force balance.
 For what it‟s worth, also note that the tip-over angle equals the sliding angle when tan( ) = µs =
b/c. Since generally µs<< 1, Except for a very top-heavy (large c) or rear-weight-shifted (small b)
vehicles, the vehicle will slide down the ramp before it flips over backwards.

Pinned joint

12 in B

4 in

30ū
6 in
 A straight bar of negligible mass 12 inches long is pinned at its lower end (call it point A) and

has a roller attached to its upper end (call it point B) as shown in the figure. The bar is at a 30˚

angle from

horizontal. A weight of 100 lbf is hung 4 inches from the lower end (call it point C).

a) What are the forces in the x and y directions on the pinned end? What is the force in the x
direction on the roller end?
b) Would the forces change if the roller and pinned ends were reversed?
c) What would happen if the lower end were fixed rather than pinned (upper end having the
roller again)?

a) The pinned end can sustain forces in both the x and y directions, but no moment. The roller end

can sustain a force only in the x direction, and again no moment. Summing the forces in the y

direction

FA,y+ FB,y + FC,y= 0 FA,y + 0 - 100 lbf= 0 FA,y = +100 lbf.

In other words, in the y direction the vertical force at point A must be +100 lbf since that is the only

force available to counteract the 100 lbf weight. Next, taking moments about point A (since the

lines of

action of two of the unknown forces intersect at point A),

MA = 0 -(4 in)(cos(30˚))(-100 lbf) + (6 in)FB,x= 0 FB,x = -57.7 lbf.

Finally, for force balance in the x direction,

FA,x+ FB,x + FC,x= 0 FA,x= -FB,x - FC,x = -(-57.7 lbf) – 0 = +57.7 lbf

b) In this case summing the forces in the x direction:

 [Link]

FA,x + FB,x+ FC,x = 0 0 + FB,x + 0 = 0 FB,x = 0.

For force balance in the y direction,

FA,y+ FB,y + FC,y = 0 FA,y + FB,y= 100 lbf

Taking moments about point C just for variety (not the easiest way, since neither FA,y nor FB,y are

known, we just know that FA,y + FB,y = 100 lbf),

MC = 0 (4 in)(cos(30˚))FA,y - (8 in)(cos(30˚))FB,y+ (8 in)(sin(30˚))FB,x = 0

(4 in)(cos(30˚))(100 lbf - FB,y) - (8 in)(cos(30˚))FB,y+ 0 = 0

FB,y = +33.3 lbf FA,y = +66.7 lbf

which is quite different from case (a).

c) In this case there are 4 unknown quantities (FA,x, FA,y, MA and FB,x) but only 3 equations ( Fx = 0,
Fy

= 0, M = 0) so the system is statically indeterminate. If one takes away the roller end entirely,

then obviously FA,y = 100 lbf, FA,x = 0 and MA = +(100 lbf)(4 in)(cos(30˚)) = 346.4 in lbf.

om
 B.E. / [Link]. DEGREE EXAMINATION
ANNA UNIVERSITY:

Second Semester
GE 6253 - ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Time : Three Hours Max. Marks : 100

Answer ALL Questions

PART – A (10 X 2 = 20 Marks)

1. Determine the resultant of the three forces F1 = 2.0i + 3.3j – 2.6k; F2 = - i + 5.2j – 2.9k; and F3 =
8.3i – 6.6j + 5.8k, which are concurrent at the point (2, 2, -5.). The forces are in newtons and the
distances are in metres.

2. A force F = (6N)i – (3Nj – (4N)k is acting at a point P whose position vector from the origin ‘O’ of
the coordinate axes is (8 mm)i + (6 mm)j – (4 mm)k. Find the moment of the force about the
origin.

3. State Varignon’s theorem.

4. State the theorems of Pappus and Guldinus to find out the surface area and the volume of a
body.

5. State the Coulomb’s laws of dry friction.

6. A belt embraces an angle of 200 over the surface of a pulley of 500 mm diameter. If the tight
side tension of the belt is 2.5 kN. Find out the slack side tension of the belt. The coefficient of
friction between the belt and the pulley can be taken as 0.3.
3 2
7. The motion of a particle in defined by the relation x = t – 15 t – 20, where ‘x’ is expressed in
metres and ‘t’ in seconds. Determine the acceleration of the particle at t = 3 seconds.

8. A mass of 50 kg. has an initial velocity of 15 m/s. horizontally on a smooth surface. Determine
the value of horizontal force that will bring the mass to rest in 4 seconds.

9. Define the term ‘coefficient of restitution’ of two bodies under impact.

10. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum of a particle.

 PART – B (5 x 16 = 80 Marks)

11. A force F acts at the origin of a coordinate system in a direction defined by the angles θx = 69.3
and θz = 57.9 . If the component of the force F along y direction is = -174N, determine.

(i) the angle θy (4 Marks) (ii)

the magnitude of the force F (4 Marks) (iii) the components
of the force F along x and z directions. (4 Marks) (iv) the component of the force F
on a line through the origin (4 Marks) . and the point (1,1,1).

12. (a) A load P of 3500 N is acting on the boom, which is held by a cable BC as shown in Fig.12(a). The
weight of the boom can be neglected.
(i) Draw the free body diagram of the boom. (4
Marks) (ii) Find out the tension in cable BC. (8
Marks) (iii) Determine the reaction at A. (4
Marks)
OR
(b) Three forces +20N, -10N and +30N are acting perpendicular to x z plane as shown in Fig. Q.12(b).
The lines of action of all the forces are parallel to y-axis. The coordinates of the point of
action of these forces along x and z directions are respectively (2,3), (4,2) and (7,4), all the
distances being referred in metres. Find out.
(i) The magnitude of the resultant force. (4 Marks) (ii)

The location of the resultant. (12 Marks)

13.(a) (i) Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area shown in Fig. Q.13 (a) if the area removed is semicircular.
(4 Marks) (ii) Find the moment of inertia of the shaded area about the centroidal axes, the axes being parallel to x and y-
axes. (6 Marks) (iii) Find the product of inertia of the shaded area about the centroidal axes. .
(6
Marks)

(OR)

(b) Find the mass moment of inertia of the rectangular block shown in Fig. Q.13(b), about the x and
y axes. A cuboid of 20 mm x 20 mm x 20 mm has been removed from the rectangular block as
3
shown in the figure. The mass density of the material of the block is 7850 kg/m .

14.(a) Two masses m1 and m2 are tied together by a rope parallel to the inclined plane surface, as
shown in Fig. Q.14(a). Their masses are 22.5 kg. and 14 kg. respectively. The coefficient of
friction between m1 and the plane is 0.25, while that of mass m2 and the plane is 0.5.
Determine.

(i) the value of the inclination of the plane surface, θ, for which the masses
will
just start sliding. (6 Marks) (ii) the
tension in the rope. (6 Marks) (iii) what will be
the friction forces at the mass surfaces. (4 Marks)
 (OR)
(b) The driver of an automobile decreases the speed at a constant rate from 72 to 48 km./hour over

a distance of 230 m. along a curve of 460 m. radius. Determine the magnitude of the total

acceleration of the automobile, after the automobile, after the automobile has traveled 150 m.

along the curve.

15.(a) Two steel blocks, shown in Fig. Q. 15(a), slide without friction on a horizontal surface. The
velocities of the blocks immediately before impact are as shown. If the coefficient of restitution
between the blocks is 0.75, determine (i) the velocities of the blocks after impact
and (12 Marks)
(ii) the energy loss during impact. (4 Marks)

(OR)

(b) A plate shown in Fig.Q.15 (b) moves in the xy plane as below.

x component velocity of point A = 450 mm/s. x component velocity of point B = -150
mm/s. y component velocity of point C= -900 mm/s. Determine
: (i) the angular velocity of the plate and(ii) the velocity of the point B.

*******