19

The Fall of the Angels

The only known review of The Fall of the Angels (which is negative)
begins by conceding that 'the author possessed no ordinary degree of
courage when he ventured on a subject which has been consecrated by
the immortal muse of Milton.'1 To suit the grandeur of his project,
Polidori has given his poem an elegant symmetry of design, to which
unfortunately its execution is not always equal; to show his independ-
ence of his immortal precursor, he has devised a most un-Miltonic verse
form. This is also unfortunate, since the blank verse of Ximenes is
considerably more accomplished than the stanzas of The Fall of the
Angels. The poem consists of two cantos, each of which consists of five
sections. Most of these ten sections consist of ten stanzas, each of which,
in turn, consists of ten lines: two pentameter quatrains separated by a
hexameter couplet. Thus the figure ten is the basis of the line, the stanza,
the section, and the entire poem. There seems to be no formal reason
why three of the sections are a little more or less than ten stanzas long;
apparently Polidori simply found that he had, at those points, a little
more or less to say than he had expected.
The idiom of the poem is a largely conventional, if sometimes un-
gainly, poetic diction. The imagery, not surprisingly, is drawn largely
from Milton. But the plot is surprisingly, even desperately, original, and
its implications are heterodox.2
After the creation of the world, the angels ask God for something to
do. He promises to give them 'beings to protect,' and accordingly creates,
and shows them, the body of Adam, as yet inanimate. Most of them,
though surprised at Adam's 'weakly frame,' gratefully accept the offered
task;3 one, however, scornfully rejects it, and seduces a number of
others. Thus the angels rebel, not, as in Milton, at the exaltation of Christ,
but, in a sense, at that of Adam; moreover, they are defeated, not by
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The Fall of the Angels 225

Christ, but simply by the faithful angels. In this, Polidori follows the
Judaic and Gnostic accounts of their rebellion, rather than the Miltonic
version.4
It is in its account of the punishment of the fallen angels, however, that
the poem definitively leaves the path of orthodoxy. The 'milder sen-
tence' God decrees for them is to lose and forget their angelic form, and
take on the human form they have mocked.5 One by one, they become
human beings; every human soul is a fallen angelic soul, undergoing a
penitential trial. (The fallen angels who have not yet undergone this trial
act as devils, making it more difficult by their temptations.) Polidori does
not say what this 'sentence' is 'milder' than; he does not venture to do
more than hint that his humane heterodoxy rejects hell, as his essay in
penology had rejected capital punishment. The poem does later refer to
'the scorching caves of burning pain,' 'Where punishment awaits the
guilty soul.'6 This punishment, however, is temporary and purgatorial,
like the subterranean punishments in the Platonic myth of Er.7 The
process of reincarnation and amnesia that the fallen angels undergo is
also part of the same Platonic myth.8 The idea that reincarnation is itself
a punishment occurs in the similar myth in the Phaedrus,9 and is implied
in Socrates's image of the body as a prison in the Phaedo, which I have
quoted in connection with Ximenes. It is also Gnostic.10 Polidori does not
say where human souls would have come from if the angels had not
fallen. No doubt one is to infer that, although God did not force them to
fall, he foreknew that they would.
Adam is thus literally, as Byron's Lara is metaphorically, 'a stranger in
this breathing world, / An erring Spirit from another hurled.'11 The
account of his awakening, however, is less like anything in Byron than it
is like the account of the awakening of Frankenstein's monster (itself
based on Milton's account of the awakening of Adam). Both Polidori's
Adam and Shelley's monster are fascinated by the light of the sun, and
gaze on it until they have to shield their eyes; both are frightened and
saddened by the coming of night, but reassured and filled with pleasure
by the moon; both wander bewildered through the woods, until they lie
down, exhausted, beside brooks.12
Both Adam and the monster are lonely and long for mates. But here
Polidori begins to complicate what he is drawing from Shelley, Milton,
and Genesis. His Adam regrets that he is the only one of his kind, as do
Milton's Adam and Shelley's monster. But he is misled by an echo, as
Milton's Eve is misled by her reflection: he 'Caught on the fanning
breeze a pleasing dream, / Of nature answering, with affection's lays, /
To his heart's craving,' but then 'he found she always answer'd the same
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226 After Byron: 1816-1821

note.'13 This hint of narcissism makes him a little like the Poet of Alastor,
in pursuit of an ideal beloved. The resemblance becomes more pro-
nounced after his encounter with Eve; he abandons her (as the Poet does
his Arab maiden, and indeed as Byron's Cain does Adah and Victor
Frankenstein does Elizabeth) for a pursuit of knowledge that (like the
Poet's) is a sublimated and hubristic expression of his sexuality.14 The
serpent (or the fallen angel possessing it) makes the sexuality of Adam's
quest all but explicit, remarking that he 'seeks to pierce the hidden
cause's flow.'15
Eve is thus alone and vulnerable to the serpent's temptation when she
finds herself at 'the Tree of knowledge and of life'16 - this hybridization
of the tree contradicts not only Genesis and Milton but also, more
immediately, Byron. The serpent borrows only one of the many argu-
ments employed by Milton's Satan - that God forbade the tree in order to
test Eve's courage.17 (The reviewer remarked that 'the devil and the
serpent must renounce all title to cunning and subtlety, if, united, they
furnish no better evidence of their talents than our author has assigned
them.')18 Polidori does, however, add an argument that is not in Milton:
that by eating from the tree, Eve will help her mate in his quest for
hidden knowledge, and so prove her love for him.19 Polidori's version of
the fall is almost as hard on Adam as Milton's is on Eve.
The first canto ends with the fall of humanity - which is the second fall
of the angels, since Adam and Eve are already fallen angels. In Milton
too, of course, the angels fall before humanity does. In Byron, the second
fall is a recurrent motif: the fourth canto of Childe Harold laments the
restoration of tyranny after the hopes of the revolutionary period as
'Man's worst - his second fall';20 the subject of Cain is the second fall of
humanity, the first sin committed by a man with the knowledge of good
and evil, and so a worse sin than that of his ignorant parents. In Milton
and Byron, the second fall follows from and aggravates the first; in
Polidori, however, it appears simply to repeat it.
The second canto is devoted to the redemption of humanity: its first
section deals with the flood; its second, with the birth of Christ (the most
original touch here is that Mary, free from the curse of Eve, gives birth
without pain);21 its third, with the crucifixion; its fourth and fifth, with
the apocalypse. After the extinction of humanity, in Polidori's version,
there is an age of quiet:

The world seem'd not to grieve; for e'en its widow'd vest
Was gay, and bright in show the colours that it drest.
Upon famed Rome's smooth hills and grassy dells,
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The Fall of the Angels 227

London's long plain and Paris' basin'd vale,

The wolf snatch'd the meek lamb; its hunger fell
Now caught no shepherd's threat upon the gale.22
This desolate pastoral expands on a verse critique of the pathetic fallacy
included in An Essay upon the Source of Positive Pleasure: Nature, accord-
ing to the essay,
would not heed, though by each other's hand
The race became extinct; the putrid heap
Would but afford her joy; - for robing vest
Of gayest green, she'd wrap her limbs in mirth.23
It may be indebted to 'Ozymandias' (published in 1819), or to the poem
that provoked 'Ozymandias/ Horace Smith's sonnet 'On a Stupendous
Leg of Granite, Discovered Standing by Itself in the Deserts of Egypt.'24
It may also have contributed something to the conclusion of the The Last
Man (1826): if it is likely that Polidori was aware of Percy Shelley's
works, it is at least possible that Mary Shelley was aware of Polidori's.
At the sounding of the last trumpet,
The leaves of life, fall'n from the human tree,
(As autumn leaves are raised from the low
ground,
And again sudden on the wind seem free
With life to move upon the air around,)
Now rose at once, and their spread dust was animate.
One breath of will, from Him who rules their several state,
Raised them, altho' the trees' autumnal spoil
Numbers not crowds like theirs, when the north
wind
With its cold nipping breath and quick-sped toil
Strips off the whole, and leaves no speck
behind.25
The allusion to Milton's fallen angels lying 'Thick as Autumnal Leaves
that strow the Brooks / In Vallombrosa' is apt, since Polidori's dead souls
are also fallen angels.26 But Milton, in turn, drew his simile from a
description of dead souls in the Inferno;27 Polidori's arevisionism, here aas
in the passages based on Frankenstein, takes his source back to its own
source. The poem may also be submitting 'Ode to the West Wind'
(published in 1820) to the same process: taking the imagery of reani-
mated leaves from its revolutionary Shelleyan context back to its former
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228 After Byron: 1816-1821

The millennium turns out to be a second penitential trial for the fallen
angels. This time they pass the trial because they have all assumed
human form, so that there are no devils left to tempt them - an innova-
tion that drastically reduces the significance of Christ's sacrifice, just as
the account of the angels' rebellion and fall minimizes his role.28 The
poem ends with the return of the fallen angels to heaven and the reward
of the faithful angels - which (since the exercise of charity is the greatest
of pleasures) is to share their happiness with their redeemed fellows.29
The retreat from the unspeakable that is so prominent in Ernestus
Berchtold reappears in the The Fall of the Angels as a conventional
confession of the poet's inability to speak in a way adequate to his
subject, which is linked with an equally conventional prayer for inspira-
tion to overcome his inadequacy. In The Fall of the Angels, as in Paradise
Lost, this invocation occurs four times: at the creation of Adam, the
incarnation, the crucifixion, and the second coming.30 Sometimes
Polidori's poetic modesty seems all too appropriate; referring to the
apocalyptic splendours of God's smile, he says:
I cannot speak them. All that I can tell
Is, that I seem'd to feel, with millions there,
As if the sight of such a smile could, well,
Win even worse than man from evil's lair.31
Like all taboos, this is a sign of ambivalence. Ambivalence about God the
Father is common in Romantic poetry: one thinks of the entity called
Urizen, or Nobodaddy, in Blake's works, of Jupiter in Shelley's Prom-
etheus Unbound, and of the 'Omnipotent tyrant' in Byron's Cain.32
Polidori's repeated refusal to describe God the Father is not the only sign
of ambivalence to him in the poem; nor is it the only way he is removed
from the poem.
Polidori often uses storm imagery, conventionally enough, to portray
divine wrath. At the first stirrings of angelic rebellion, for example, 'The
thunders broke from where they sleeping lay; / The angry lightings
flash'd with forked fires.'33 But the same Jovian storm imagery is repeat-
edly applied to human passion - thus bringing the wrathful God down to
our level - as in the allusion to 'stormy manhood' in the description of
the inanimate Adam and, more surprisingly, in the account of the flood
in which Noah and his family, 'guardians of the race, / Attempt to steer,
upon the stormy sea / Of Man's rude passions.'34 This even suggests,
daringly if perhaps unconsciously, that there is no superhuman
punisher, that the divine wrath is just a metaphor for human destruc-
tiveness punishing itself.
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The Fall of the Angels 229

Moreover, some of the epic similes applied to God are so grotesque as

to be subversive. Before the creation, the angels are alarmed at the
turbulence of chaos, but God is calm:
Thus can the shepherd, when the forest near
Echoes the howling wolf's loud lengthening bay,
Sleep undismayed, the while his sheep, with fear,
Wilder'd look round and know not where to stay.35
This simile questions God's concern for humanity, and even his exist-
ence: it recalls not only the complaint in 'Lycidas' about the careless
shepherds who fail to protect their sheep from 'the grim wolf,'36 but even
Elijah's taunt that Baal may have been asleep or hunting or on a trip
when his prophets prayed to him.37 It is unlikely to be the result of simple
poetic incompetence: the least one can say is that the incompetence
appears to be (again, perhaps unconsciously) motivated. A poetic lapse
may be as revealing as a lapsus linguae. (Polidori hastens to correct the
slip by adding, at the beginning of the next stanza, 'He saw their fear.')38
Perhaps the most revealing sign of Polidori's ambivalence is that God
the Father is not called a father until the very end of the poem.39 Before
that, the poem goes to some lengths of inelegance to avoid introducing
fathers of any kind. At the flood, for example, mothers hold their
children, hoping to protect them; 'Husbands and lovers,' not fathers, try
to protect the mothers and children.40 The first human father to appear
explicitly in the poem is the last man, an old man who dies at the sight of
his dead family.41 This is a more important, though more subtle, example
of the retreat from the unspeakable; as in the case of incest, what is
unspeakable is a familial relationship - in this case, between the
punisher and the punished. Denying it denies both the punisher's pater-
nal right to punish and the punished's filial obligation to love him: such a
denial is an essential part of what Freud calls the family romance.42 At
the end of the poem, God can be a father because he no longer needs to
be a punisher - there will never again be any reason for his wrath.
It is not surprising that God in his own right should appear more
wrathful than merciful; his mercy is expressed (as in Milton) through
Christ, or (uniquely) through the all-but-autonomous process of pen-
ance and purgation that the angels undergo on earth. It is more surpris-
ing that Polidori's God is not called a father even when he is merciful.
When he is called one at the end of the poem, there is no longer any need
for mercy, any more than for wrath. When he is kindly or merciful earlier
in the poem, he is compared not to a father but to a mother, taking her
children to play in a meadow or smiling to assure them that she forgives
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230 After Byron: 1816-1821

them.43 In the penitential millennium, it is the mothers, not the fathers,

who 'direct / [Their children's] steps in virtue's tracks,' thus completing
the redemption of humanity - as Louisa and the spirit of the mother she
resembles redeem Ernestus in Ernestus Berchtold.u The single exception
to this is, oddly, that Peter refers to the Son as 'a sire,' just before denying
him.45 This recalls the inversion of paternal and filial roles prominent in
Ximenes, and the image of the suffering father prominent both in the
tragedy and in the novel.
The demotions and transformations Polidori has inflicted on the
paternal image have not, however, drained it of its power. The division
of sacred from profane love which is prominent in both Ernestus
Berchtold and The Vampyre (where it is due to the dread of incest, which
in turn is bound up with the fear of paternal wrath) reappears in The Fall
of the Angels as a Cartesian division between soul and body. This is a
common enough concern in the Romantic period, as of course it has been
since well before Descartes. It is particularly prominent in Byron; for
example, it appears in Manfred's complaint that his 'Promethean spark'
is 'cooped in clay,' that his 'mixed essence' - 'Half dust, half deity' - is
'alike unfit / To sink or soar.'46
Polidori's most elaborate symbol of this duality, a physically perfect
but soulless body, which makes two balanced appearances in his poem,
is drawn from The Giaour, where it is applied first, analogically, to the
landscape of Greece from which the classical spirit has departed:

He who hath bent him o'er the dead

Ere the first day of Death is fled,
The first dark day of Nothingness,
The last of Danger and Distress,
(Before Decay's effacing fingers
Have swept the lines where Beauty lingers,)
And marked the mild angelic air,
The rapture of Repose that's there,
The fixed yet tender traits that streak
The languor of the placid cheek,
And - but for that sad shrouded eye,
That fires not, wins not, weeps not, now,
And but for that chill, changeless brow,
Where cold Obstruction's apathy
Appals the gazing mourner's heart,
As if to him it could impart
The doom he Brought
dreads,to yet dwells upon;
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The Fall of the Angels 231

Yes, but for these and these alone,

Some moments, aye, one treacherous hour,
He still might doubt the Tyrant's power;
So fair, so calm, so softly sealed,
The first, last look by Death revealed!
Such is the aspect of this shore;
Tis Greece, but living Greece no more!
So coldly sweet, so deadly fair,
We start, for Soul is wanting there.47

Later, Byron applies the same image literally (but negatively) to Leila,
the poem's heroine, in a consideration (and rejection) of the supposed
Islamic belief that women have no souls.48
Polidori first applies the image to Adam before his animation:
When virtue's struggle ends, and taunts are vain;
When all the world's inflictions can no more;
When virtue gains a refuge from all pain,
And pure has run its course on this wild shore;
When stormy manhood sinks, as infancy was born,
With smiles of peace, unstain'd, tho' e'en by passion torn;
Then even death may wear that pleasing look
This form then bore, when, fresh from God's fair
hand,
That smile, as if the dead of rest, partook
Without a triumph o'er th' oppressive band.49
The last man to die at the end of the world is appalled, like the narrator of
The Giaour, at the life-like beauty of his dead children and grand-
children; indeed, it imparts the doom he dwells upon, for he dies of the
shock.50
Polidori's dualism, however, is much more pervasive than Byron's; it
is about as pervasive as it could be. The spirits in Manfred, being all spirit,
can take a condescending and rather pedantic attitude towards the
hero's divided condition:

his knowledge, and his powers and will,

As far as is compatible with clay,
Which clogs the ethereal essence, have been such
As clay hath seldom borne ...51
Lucifer repeatedly addresses Cain, in the same condescending tones, as
Poor clay!'52 Polidori's angels,
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232 After Byron: 1816-1821

soul and body even before they fall. The war between the angels takes
place on earth, not in heaven (the poem's cosmos is as dualistic as its
inhabitants); and both sides are emphatically material: Their huge
spread limbs in dreadful contact came' and 'Their blood, one bright vast
stain / Spreads o'er the mead and reddens all the grass.'53 (In his account
of the war in heaven, Milton is careful to distinguish between flesh and
'th' Ethereal substance' of angels and between blood and the 'Nectarous
humor' that they bleed. Milton's own angelology is complex, eclectic,
and still controversial, but it is generally consistent with the common
view that angels are less corporeal than human beings but more cor-
poreal than God. It does seem to postulate a more continuous chain of
being than is orthodox, but it comes closer to implying that the structures
of human and angelic substance are both unified than, as Polidori does,
that they are both divided.)54 When the soul of the leader of the fallen
angels passes into the body of Adam, his own body is left behind (hence
my earlier use of the term reincarnation):
And lifeless, first, the beauteous spoil is seen
Of him who urged them rashly to the deed;
While man's arose from off the flowery green,
Fired with a soul that mock'd such idle weed.55
The passage closely anticipates the first scene of Byron's The Deformed
Transformed (1822), in which the hunchback Arnold is given a new body
by a diabolical Stranger: 'ARNOLD falls senseless; his soul passes into the
shape of Achilles, which rises from the ground.'56 Arnold, however, is a
human being; one expects him to have both a soul and a body. When the
Stranger perversely takes on Arnold's discarded body, his own previous
shape simply disappears. Polidori's description of the newly animate
Adam as Tired with a soul that mock'd such idle weed' - that is, such a
useless garment as human flesh - may be appropriate for a Romantic
fallen angel (one who fell precisely because he mocked the human form),
but it does not imply a promising beginning for an unfallen man.
Even the poem's God is divided in various ways - always into pairs of
antithetical qualities, never into an orthodox trinity (the poem makes no
allusion to the Holy Spirit). His Justice (or Vengeance, which seems to be
the same thing) and Mercy, for example, are contrasted at least six times
in the course of the poem. His Mercy is also, curiously, contrasted to his
Will.57
The imagery applied to him is equally dualistic. Just as Adam is
encumbered with an 'idle weed' of flesh, and the incarnate Son with a
Towly vest' of the same material, so the Father in heaven has 'garments,'
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The Fall of the Angels 233

or, more often, a 'veil.'58 Milton's God is addressed as'Fountain of Light,

thyself invisible / Amidst the glorious brightness.'59 Polidori's God is
described, on one occasion, as 'in his splendour drest,' but usually as a
'splendent power' veiled by 'murky shades of thickest darkness,' an
inner light and an outer darkness, a light breaking through clouds. These
are often storm clouds, as I have mentioned, and the light breaking
through them is often lightning, as at the angelic rebellion. The angels
then beg for mercy, but 'The beam the scale of mercy flings / High to the
heavens, and their cause is tried.'60 Vengeance overcomes Mercy again,
and of course a storm breaks out again, before the flood.61 Polidori's God
is almost as bad-tempered as Blake's Nobodaddy.
These divisions in the poem's God are another response to the threat
of paternal wrath: the resolution of the child's ambivalent feelings for the
father by the disintegration of the image of the father into loving and
wrathful halves.62 They may also be a form of filial revenge, making the
father feel the disintegrating effects of his own dictates. They have a
curious effect. In the Romantic ideology, division is typically a conse-
quence of the fall. Unfallen human nature is typically seen as harmo-
nious and whole; the divine nature (when it is even seen as separate from
the human), as supremely so. Blake's myth of the Universal Man's 'fall
into Division & his Resurrection to Unity' is only the clearest example.63
Prometheus Unbound blames a number of divisions on the fall:

The good want power, but to weep barren tears.

The powerful goodness want: worse need for them.
The wise want love; and those who love want wisdom ...64
The second fall in Cain compounds the divided condition of humanity by
breaking apart the first (and, until then, the only) family.65 Polidori's
poem, in effect, presents nothing as unfallen, not even its God, who
differs from Blake's Nobodaddy or Shelley's Jupiter chiefly by not being
an alienated and perverted fragment of a more authentic divinity. (The
same might be said of Byron's Jehovah. Byron's subversiveness is more
explicit, and probably more consciously intentional, than Polidori's, but
it is subverted in its turn by the dramatic irony of its ascription to the
devil and the first murderer: the alienation and perversion may be theirs,
not God's.)66 Thus, in Polidori, the fall is essentially as insignificant as
the atonement.
If the sign of the fall is division, and if division is associated with the
prohibition of incest, then to postulate a primal unity, Polidori would
have to postulate a state in which incest was permitted, as Byron does in
Cain, and as MiltonBrought
does toin you
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Penseroso': 'in Saturn's reign / Such
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234 After Byron: 1816-1821

mixture was not held a stain.'67 He does not venture to do so, or even to
postulate an unfallen sexuality, as Milton does in Paradise Lost. In
Polidori's Eden, sexuality is already tainted by the prohibition of incest
that separates it from love. Eve strives to satisfy Adam's 'wantonness' - a
term Milton reserves for fallen sex68 - 'Until e'en blood doth stain her
brighter snows,'69 a periphrasis that makes the loss of virginity both an
injury and a defilement. Afterwards, Adam, 'tired at length of fondling
and of love,' leaves her to look for something more interesting; he
already suffers from the compulsive unfaithfulness characteristic of the
Byronic vampire.70
Because it has reduced the fall to insignificance, the poem can collapse
some of the dualities one might have expected it to enforce. As I have
mentioned, it identifies the trees of knowledge and of life. Milton is
careful to keep them apart. So is Byron's Manfred, who declares, 'The
Tree of Knowledge is not that of Life.' So is Byron's Cain; when Adam
prays, 'Oh God! why didst thou plant the tree of knowledge?' Cain
interrupts him: 'And wherefore plucked ye not the tree of life?'; later, he
complains to Lucifer: 'the Tree of Life / Was withheld from us by my
father's folly, / While that of Knowledge, by my mother's haste, / Was
plucked too soon.'71 In its presentation of God, Polidori's poem confuses
the Father with the Son, and the light of divine Mercy with the lightning
of divine Vengeance. A more dramatic example of the same collapse of
duality occurs when Gabriel leaves heaven to bring the annunciation to
Mary: 'The golden gates of heaven flew open wide,' and 'On wings, far
stretching, like great sails unfurl'd, / He springs' into space. Then,
'creaking on their brazen hinge,' the gates shut behind him.72 The
description of the gates of heaven seems to be based on Milton's descrip-
tion of the gates of hell, which are made partly of brass and creak on their
hinges;73 the flight of Gabriel is clearly based on that of Milton's Satan:
'At last his Sail-broad Vans / He spreads for flight ,..'74 Thus Polidori's
poem is subversive in two opposite ways, both presumably unconscious
- by denying the duality imposed by the father as well as by affirming it
so rigorously as to reduce it to absurdity.
The poem was first issued anonymously - without the name of the
father. But perhaps Polidori did not want it associated with his profane
writings; perhaps he was tired of the personal attacks of reviewers;
perhaps he simply could not decide whether to sign it Polidori or Pierce.
(His other publication of 1821, the text for Bridgens's book of sketches,
was also anonymous.) After his death, it was reissued with his name on
the title page.
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