Chapter 3

Meaning of Philosophical Foundations and its

The foundations of curriculum are the values, traditions,

factors, and forces which influence the kind, quantity and quality of

experiences the school offers its learners. Curriculum has many

influential forces which have engendered a tremendous impact upon

the construction of curriculum. In other words, philosophical

foundations are those elements of philosophy which have a bearing

on choices made in regard to the purposes and contents of the

school. It is in the area of curriculum planning that philosophy in

education reflects itself. The goals or objectives of any educational

effort can only be implemented through a curriculum which translates

them into subjects, units of instruction, themes and topics which

enter the classroom. They are to be reflected into the reading, the

instruction and the activities of the pupils under the guidance and

direction of the teachers. For understanding the concept of

philosophical foundations, we need to know the relation between

philosophy and education.

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 In the earlier chapter we have talked about the meaning of

education. Now we will discuss the meaning of philosophy. The word

‘philosophy’ comes from the Greek word ‘philosophies’ which is

made up of the words phileo meaning love and sophia meaning

wisdom. Thus, the literal meaning of philosophy is ‘love of wisdom”.

The word ‘philosophy’ refers to a certain way of thinking. It arises out

of an attempt to arrive at the solution of a problem; it may be to

resolve a confusing situation.

Philosophy has been defined by various scholars from various

angles. It started from the time when Greek civilization had its full

glamour. Philosophy, according to the Greek thinkers, is nothing but

an endeavor to bring about a consistent, explanation of the various

realities around us. Coleridge defined philosophy as the ‘science of

sciences, 1
Casero called it ‘the mother of all arts’, and ‘the true
2
medicine of mind’ Philosophy has also been defined as an attempt

to explain and appreciate life as a whole. A philosopher, therefore,

has got the chief aim of life and action, taken them as a systematic

whole. The outlook of a philosopher is thus, far wide and

comprehensive. There is some controversy on the definition of reality

and a philosopher is greatly concerned with ultimate reality. The

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attitude of a philosopher is to take the universe as a systematic

whole. Some people think that philosophy is the revelation of some

truth through everyday experience. According to Alexander,

philosophy means metaphysics. Philosophy, he thinks, is an attempt

to study such comprehensive topics like Reality and Universe. His

conception of philosophy tries to combine two concepts of

metaphysics and criticism. This means that the metaphysical

principles are not available in sense-experience. But on the other

hand whatever is accepted as principles must constitute the

guidelines or criteria in terms of which realities are to be determined.

In this sense metaphysical principles help us to find out realities

through critical deliberations.

According to the revolutionary school of thought, philosophy is

neither metaphysics of experiences nor realities beyond sense-

experience. The proper function of philosophy is a logical analysis of

the proposition of science. Plato states that the knowledge of reality

is knowledge of the universal, unchangeable and eternal. In a simpler

form we can say that philosophy means mature reflection about any

problem in its complete perspective. It is something which comes

naturally to every human being who makes use of knowledge and

wisdom in deciding upon a course of action in a given situation.

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Every man who searches into the reason and nature of things, who

arrives or tries to arrive at certain general principles and conceptions

and who applies them to daily conduct of life, is consciously or

unconsciously behaving like a true philosopher. From the above it

would appear that there are two broad concepts of philosophy.

• Philosophy is a science of some kind and it differs from the

special science not in kind but in degree. Philosophy is

concerned with most general types of problems and also

examines them more critically.

• Philosophy is not merely the intuitive experience of reality, it is

an intellectual attempt to interpret and understand the universe.

Caird states, “There is no province of human experience, there is

anything in the whole realm of reality which lies beyond the domain

of philosophy “3. It is no wonder then that philosophical thoughts

have always influenced education. To the extent an educator strives

to attain some goal and bring order and consistency in his attempts,

he is acting in accordance with a system of ideas and values which

constitute his philosophy. The answer to every educational question

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is ultimately influenced by the educator’s philosophical outlook.

Philosophy formulates the aims of life, and education offers

suggestions how these aims are to be achieved. Education, in the

widest sense of the term, is life itself and in a narrow sense, it

denotes the preparation for complete living. Philosophy furnishes a

consistent and comprehensive interpretation of life and defines its

goals.

Therefore the problems of education and philosophy are not

only inter-related, but are ultimately identical in nature. Sir John

Adams describes education as a dynamic aspect of philosophy 4.

According to Fichte, “The art of education will never attain complete

clearness in itself without philosophy”5John Dewey defines

philosophy as a theory of education in its most general aspects6. He

holds that education is the laboratory of philosophy where the validity

of philosophical truths is tested. Indeed, great philosophical truths

have obtained permanence, only when they have been disseminated

through education and practiced in life. This is why we find that all

great philosophers like Socrates, Ramakrishna and others were also

great educators. The goal of philosophy is to explain the various

mysteries of the universe, the place of man in the universe, his

wisdom. And the chief means of philosophy is education, which has

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been correctly described as the dynamic side of philosophy.

Education is a practical activity of philosophical thoughts. The

speculative and critical function of philosophy affects not only the

direction of moral guidance that the teacher gives but also affects the

direction and the emphasis of the curriculum. No practice is good and

scientific unless rooted in philosophical thought which gives logic,

reason, sequence and system to education Fichte very rightly

observes that the art of education will never attain complete

clearness without philosophy’ 7Gentile states, “Education without

philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of

education’8.

Education is a growing science and its foundations are to be

explored for a study of the subject as an inter-disciplinary approach.

We need some frame of reference in which education has to fit.

There have been various schools of philosophy presenting their

views with much optimism. Education is the process of enabling

people not merely to live but to live squarely and adequately. There

are various facets of education: academic, aesthetic, moral, physical,

social and spiritual, on this basis of which theories of education have

been formulated and different values have been emphasized.

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Philosophy assists education in understanding man, his life, his

actions, ideals and problems. It assists the educator in formulating

beliefs, arguments, assumptions and judgments concerning learning

and teaching, subject-matter and skill, desirable ends and

appropriate means of schooling. Philosophy means looking at the

whole of a question without restriction or simplification, looking at

aims and purposes. A philosophy of education, therefore, should take

into account the conflicting notions of life and education. It is through

philosophy that one’s outlook broadens. The modern philosophy in

education builds up with the development of critical thinking and

reason. It involves a rational outlook which takes into consideration

the whole problem before finding its conclusion.

Hence, it can be rightly concluded that education cannot be

dissociated from philosophy. An analysis of the nature of philosophy

and education reveals that philosophy looks at the end and purposes

of life in the light of the ultimate reality. It also throws light on the

means and methods for the realization of the aims of life. On the

other hand education signifies self-development of man in and

through his life experience. Every act of living is educative.

Therefore, aims or goals of education are determined by, and

correlated to, the aims or goals of life. Thus in a real sense,

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education is a practical philosophy and touches life at many points.

Philosophy formulates the ideals of life and education seeks to

organize a system providing practical means and methods for the

proper guidance of the educands. The intimate relationship between

philosophy and education will be quite clear, if we consider how

different schools of philosophical thoughts differently affect diverse

educational issues. Broadly speaking the major schools of

philosophy are three in number;

- Idealistic

- Naturalistic

- Pragmatistic

We are here to discuss the philosophical foundations of

curriculum at primary stage of education. But earlier we have already

discussed that education has various indispensable factors and

curriculum is one of them. The need of philosophy of education is felt

very seriously in the area of curriculum planning. The philosophical

approach to life is the guiding factor in respect of the choice of

studies to be included in the curriculum. So it will be better if we

discuss the foundation on the overall field of education giving special

emphasis on curriculum.

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3.1 Idealism

Idealism is a school of philosophy is represented as the most

influential and dominating school in the field of education. It is

derived from Plato’s metaphysical doctrine that reality consists in

ideas and those ideas or whole truths are universal in character.

Idealistic philosophy takes many and varied forms. It has influenced

human life and education, in some form or other, down the ages.

Idealism contends that the material universe, known to sciences, is

an incomplete expression of reality and that it requires, to

complement it, a higher type of reality, a spiritual universe. It also

emphasizes the distinctiveness of human nature and human power

which find expression in the form of intellectual culture, art, morality

and religion. The nature of idealism is expressed in the following

fundamental propositions:

i) True reality is spiritual or thought.

ii) Nothing exists except what exists in the Absolute Mind, of

which our finite minds are parts.

iii) What the mind projects into the world is the only reality.

iv) Ideas and purposes are the realities of existence.

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 v) Knowledge and values are universal and eternal.

Thus the idealists believe that the true or the good is universal

and essentially mental or spiritual in character. We are here to

discuss how much influence has idealism exerted upon education.

Since our present concern is with education, so we should broadly

divide idealism in education under two major heads:

- Religious Idealism

- Cultural Idealism

Religious idealism is the oldest from of this philosophy.

Religious idealism regarded religion as the very foundation of all life

activities of man, including his education and culture. It has cast its

shadows in different times. The Brahmanic system of education in

ancient India stands on the religious philosophy which used to

determine the way of living and achieving the goal leading to the

realization of the inner self. Thus educational aim under the influence

of this Absolute Idealism is directed towards the development of the

‘whole man’, self-fulfillment and the attainment of knowledge. In

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modern India also we find the same expression of the thought in the

ideas of Swami Vivekananda. Buddhistic system of education like the

Brahmanistic system was also closely related to religion. The main

aim of life and education was at that time, directed towards the

attainment of ways which would give salvation or mukti for this

earthly attachment.

Cultural Idealism emphasizes on human culture as the highest

manifestation of the creative genius of human personality. Cultural

idealism owes its origin to Plato, the great Greek philosopher-

educator. It has great impact upon the concept of human experience

and its interaction with nature and environment.

Now we will discuss the various aspects of education which

are being influenced by idealistic philosophy. The idealistic school in

education is represented by Plato, Commenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel

and eastern thinkers like Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and

others Educational aims, according to idealism, should be directed

towards the attainment of complete manhood. Education as an

unending process should aim at recognizing the immense

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potentialities of man, enabling each one to be his highest, truest

self. Therefore self-realization is the chief aim of education according

to the idealists. The purpose of education under idealism is to

transmit the cultural heritage which reflects the truth as it has been

ascertained throughout the ages. Naturally, the curriculum of the

school under idealism revolves round that are called worthy ideas.

Worthy ideas are drawn from the past and are recorded in books with

emphasis on history and literature as the sources of ideas. Special

attention is paid to the masterpieces that record various aspects of

humanity. Idealism presents considerable selection of materials to

children in order to give them the best of their culture. The idealist’s

approach to the problem of curriculum is from the domain of ideas

and ideals. Idealists attach importance to the experience of human

race as a whole. Accordingly, the curriculum includes the sciences

and the humanities. Idealists, however, attach greater importance to

the study of humanities than to positive science. Science which

relates human experiences regarding physical environment and the

study of other branches of human life should also be included in

school curriculum. Anyway, all the activities which are the grand

expressions of human spirit are prescribed as school curricula.

Therefore, it is very clear that the dependence of education on

philosophy is even better marked in the field of curriculum

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construction. Plato believed that the highest ideal of life was the

attainment of the highest good or God and for this he has suggested

that the curriculum should aim at the inculcation of the three spiritual

values, i.e. Truth, Beauty and Goodness. These three values

determine three types of activities; intellectual, aesthetic and moral.

Subjects that represent these activities are as follows. Language,

literature, mathematics; science, history and geography represent

intellectual activities. Aesthetic activities are represented by art and

poetry. Religion, ethics and metaphysics represent moral activities.

According to Nunn, the schools should give place to those human

activities “that are of greatest and most permanent significance in the

wider world, the grandest expressions of the human spirit’9 Thus

Nunn endorses the idealist standpoint as regards the curriculum.

Idealists approach the framing of the curriculum from the

domain of ideas and ideals.

i) The curriculum should represent the experience of

the human race as a whole, relating to the physical

and the social environment; the sciences and the

humanities will thus be included.

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 ii) Plato spoke of spiritual values which enable the

pupil to pursue the good, the true and the beautiful.

iii) Physical education, which Plato called ‘Gymnastic’,

will be included in the curriculum. Athletics,

gymnastics, health and hygiene will be taught along

with intellectual, artistic and spiritual pursuits in the

school.

Ross summarizes from Rusk a scheme for a complete and

generous education. This is demonstrated in the following table.

Education

Physical Activities Spiritual Activities

Care of body Skill Intellectual Moral Aesthetic Religious

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 Physical activities include the care of the health and fitness of

the body and the bodily skills are represented by such subjects as

gymnastics and athletics.

Spiritual activities include subjects like history, geography, fine

arts, morality, language, ethics, etc. It must be kept in mind that

physical and spiritual activities are not entirely separate.

Our discussion will remain incomplete if we not draw our

attention to the contributions of Vivekananda. Vivekananda would

seem to be committed to religious idealism arising out of ancient

Indian life and the educational heritage rooted in it. He states that

“knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes from outside, it

within and the task of education is to discover and uncover the

powers that are already in man. Education should provide the child

ample scope for his free growth according to his nature. The child

should develop positive ideas, deep self confidence and the spirit of

independence. As Vivekananda urges, “We want that education by

which character is found, strength of mind is increased, the intellect

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is expanded and by which one can stand on one’s feet”.11 In order to

bring about regeneration in Indian life Vivekananda stressed on mass

education. Education must not remain a closed preserve for the

privileged few of the society. It must reach everyone irrespective of

class, caste, sex, age and all other differences. Along with Sanskrit

language and literature, he gave special emphasis on mother tongue

to be included in the curriculum. Apart from religion subjects like

modern sciences, geography, history etc. are to be included in the

curriculum. He placed emphasis on the inclusion of subjects on the

cultural heritage of India in the school curriculum.

Another great exponent of this school (idealism) is Sri

Aurobindo. According to Aurobindo there are four vehicles of

learning. They are vital, physical, and mental and psychic; in a

combined manner, these cultivate power, beauty, knowledge and

love, Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy of education gave much emphasis

on the psychic aspect of man. Education is deemed to be an

instrument of awakening of man as a spiritual being. Mind, being the

principal instrument of education, must help cultivation of mental

powers and process. His theory of education is guided by the

principles of Yoga. Sri Aurobindo draws distinction between

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intellectual aspect of education, physical training and edification of

character. In this opinion these three aspects together constitute

education.

Sri Aurobindo enumerated three principles of teaching.

The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be

taught. The teacher is not an instructor or task master; he is a

helper and guide.

The second principle is that the mind has to be consulted in its

growth.

The third principle of teaching is to work from the near to the

far, from the known to the unknown.

Man’s nature is molded by his soul’s past, his heredity and his

environment. The past is the foundation, the present is the

material and future is the aim. Sri Aurobindo suggests perfect

liberty for the child. Like all other areas of human life Sri

Aurobindo has made valuable contribution to the field of

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 curriculum also. He includes specific areas of studies in the

curriculum

• Psychic and spiritual studies

• Academic subjects

• Physical and health education

• Cultural activities like art, music, drama

• Vocational training

• Education for international understanding.

From the above , it should be clear that idealistic thinkers,

particularly, idealistic educators, maintain that school should be an

ideally selected social environment where students will be provided

with all the opportunities for free expression of latent powers and

enhancement of their abilities. Idealistic approach to curriculum

construction is also very vital for all stages of education. It includes

all the activities which are the grand expressions of human spirit. At

present we are facing various forms of problems within our society. In

this era of erosion of values in every sphere, idealism in education

should be the torch-bearer before the rising generation for enabling

them to keep pace with the growing demands of the age.

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3.2 Naturalism

Naturalism may be called one of the oldest philosophies in the

western world. Reality according to this philosophy is represented by

nature alone. Nothing exists beyond or rather than nature. Naturalism

regards man solely as a part of nature at large, and considers

education from this point of view. Accordingly, naturalism holds that

the root of education lies in the natural potentials of human beings.

Therefore naturalism regards education as a process of self -

expression and spontaneous self-development without any sort of

interference from outside. Naturalism as a philosophy expresses

itself, according to various thinkers, in three distinct forms:

• Physical Naturalists – These philosophers hold that human

life is governed entirely by physical laws. Rousseau believed in

naturalism of the physical type.

• Mechanical Naturalists – According to these thinkers, man is

merely a machine. According to this group of thinkers man

should be taught to adjust mechanically with the material

environment. Thus materialistic naturalism starts with the

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 phenomenal nature and tries to fit man who is nothing more

than a highly complicated psychochemical machine.

• Biological Naturalists – According to these thinkers man has

evolved to his present the lower forms of life. This is the

Darwinian concept of man According to Herbert Spencer; we

came to be what we are now, by a process of growth and

development. Biological naturalism is also applied to education.

It is not directly connected with systems of training that are not

dependent on schools and books but on the actual

manipulation of the life of the educand. It reacts against any

artificial system imposed upon him. It aims at creating

conditions that will foster free spontaneous self-expression and

natural self-development.

Naturalism as a philosophical doctrine tremendously influenced

modern educational practice. According to this school of philosophy

education is the process of self development into an enjoyable,

rational, harmoniously balanced, useful and natural life. Thus the

stress on child’s nature is equivalent to the emphasis on his natural

development. Education is merely the fostering of natural

development and it taxes place when the needs, abilities, interests of

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the child are allowed to develop freely with minimum interference.

Considered from this point of view, the educator is only a guide. All

this may be summed up by the term “paidocentricism” which is

essentially naturalistic.

Another feature of naturalistic education is that it is based on

psychology. The desire to know child-nature and its development has

led to the direct study of the child himself. Psychology may not set

goal for education but it can ascertain whether a set goal is realizable

or not. It has greatly influenced the organizational problems of

curriculum construction, of grading and arranging educational

materials to balance with the child’s developing interests and

abilities. This school of philosophy stresses upon individual

differences and hence they are not in favor of formulating any

particular curricular pattern. Every child will choose his curricula from

the environment in accordance with his basic nature and capacity.

Herbert Spencer gave emphasis on scientific studies as those are

directly related with the life-experiences of children, and the

knowledge of those studies will be required by them for the better

adjustment with the living conditions. So the naturalists generally

prescribe nature study, agriculture, gardening and other such activity

oriented curricula for growing children. Curriculum, according to

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naturalists, is the sum total of the activities and experiences of the

learner. Curricula must be activity centered, flexible and integrated.

Thus naturalism in both forms, that is, biological naturalism and

scientific naturalism, lays stress on human being with all his innate

tendencies and capacities in all aspects – physical, mental and

social. All these areas are given importance because according to

naturalism education enables an individual to live in accordance with

his psycho-physical nature, to bring out and nourish the powers with

an objective of attaining the total development. Accordingly,

curriculum should have linkage with the living experience and

activities of the learners. So emphasis has been laid on activities,

scientific studies and nature study etc.

Naturalism has been defined by Joyce as “a system whose

salient characteristic is the exclusion of whatever is spiritual, or

indeed whatever is transcendental of experience from our philosophy

“doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to

matter, and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme’13 Rousseau has

been the outstanding exponent of naturalism in education.

Naturalism believes in negative education. Therefore, the child is not

to be taught the traditional subjects. The curriculum is conceived as a

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natural phenomenon presented in the natural order before the child.

The primary place is given to the budding activities and interests of

the child’s own nature. The curriculum is to unfold the natural powers

to the child in order to meet his natural needs. Hence the curriculum

will include those activities which spring naturally from the needs of

the child’s life. Naturalism believes in the theory of ‘self-teaching’ as

Rousseau says, “By relieving school children of their course books I

take away the chief cause of their misery’14.

Naturalists stress the importance of child study. Pestalozzi,

Froebel, Stanley Hall, Montessori, Tagore, Piaget and others have

emphasized on the child’s dynamic nature which grows and develops

in distinct stages, each stage having its own characteristic.

Naturalism ushered in the psychological movement and forms the

basis for child-centered education stressing freedom, initiative,

spontaneity and self-expression. Along with this, each child’s

individuality should be recognized, keeping in mind that certain types

of behaviour will occur regardless of intervention.

So it can be rightly said that naturalism as a philosophical

doctrine has a tremendous influence upon modern education. It

gives constant emphasis on the child’s nature and urges that

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education is to be based on that nature. The stress on child’s nature

is equivalent to the emphasis on his natural development. As already

said, education is merely the fostering of natural development and it

takes place when the needs, abilities, interests of the child are

allowed to develop freely with minimum interference. Considered

from this point of view, the curriculum is only a broad outlook of

materials which are open to all individuals and they are equally free

to choose according to their needs.

One of the greatest exponents of naturalism is Rousseau, whose

contribution in education touches the life of every child in the modern

days also. Rousseau was greatly influenced by three sources

1. Education of nature.

2. Education given by men.

3. Education from circumstances.

Rousseau has divided education into four stages. In the first stage

he recommends purely physical education. He recommends running,

jumping and playing with simple objects of nature such as branches

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with fruits and flowers. The second stage of childhood (five to

twelve) is the most crucial period of human life Organs are to be

developed freely and senses should be given ample exercise. There

should be no verbal lessons. No moral education or positive

education is to be given. Education at this stage is non-intellectual

and non-social and therefore it is called negative education.

Adolescence (twelve to fifteen) is the third stage. Rousseau

recommends that child is to be taught physical science, language,

mathematics, manual work, social relation, trade, music and drawing.

The knowledge of these subjects is to be acquired through child’s

own experiences. The fourth stage is the youth. Regarding the

education at this stage, he writes that along with physical

development and mental development an individual also needs to be

social. In the earlier stages, the boy was an individual working for

self-perfection and self-development. Now he has to be social and

adapt himself to the conduct and interest of others. The study of

society, politics, economics, history and religion are the appropriate

studies for the youth to understand complex social relationships.

According to him, Emile his imaginary boy must be given moral

education about his relations with his fellow men. Rousseau

recommends that moral education should be given through activities

and occupations and not through mere lectures on ethics. History will

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be utilized as a means of moral instruction. Travel is recommended

for knowing the world and the institutions of the neighboring

countries. The chief characteristics of his curriculum are:

1. It is based on the nature of the child, his interests, etc.

2. It lays stress on subjects that are helpful in self-preservation.

3. It emphasizes on basic sciences.

4. It also emphasizes physical and health education.

Froebel, the German educator, also holds that child expresses

the best when he is free in the nature. So education to Froebel is a

self-developmental process in and through self-activity. Hence

curriculum follows the principle of centering round the individual child,

and his characteristic activity and interests. According to him mother

tongue should be the basis of all instruction. Mathematics occupies

an important place because the rational faculty is developed through

mathematics. Nature-study is given an important place. Curriculum

should include drawing, as Froebel thinks that in this process of

drawing the child expands his mental horizon and reveals his innate

nature. Story-telling, singing, dancing, nursery rhymes get important

places in the curriculum. Therefore Froebel has brought a new

change in the field of education. Froebel invites us to live for our

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children and love them. Children are no more passive learners. He

has helped to make the society conscious of education for young

children. He fully recognizes the importance of the education in the

early years. Froebel believes that play is the highest phase of self-

development. He introduces play way in the activities. Froebel puts

emphasis on the need for the study of the nature of the child, his

instincts and impulses. Froebel did introduce gifts for the training of

the senses of children. With the help of these gifts he wanted to give

the idea of shape, form, colour, size and number. In every modern

school those activities are introduced that help in the training of

senses. Froebel is the first educator to make self-activity as the basis

of education. It is for his contribution that the present school has

become a place of activity and joy for children. Various types of

activities will help the children to satisfy their instincts of construction,

manipulation, curiosity and acquisition. Froebel’s principles and ideas

are most remarkably evident in the educational tendencies of the

modern times. The Kindergarten as his original creation did not end

with him but spread as an institution all over the world. His more

significant contributions in the field of modern education may be

attributed to his concepts of play, self-activity, creativity and nature

study and their implications in the re-orientation of modern education.

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 Another great exponent of naturalism is Herbert Spencer. He

initiated a powerful educational reform movement in the form of a

vigorous protest against the traditional classical education. Spencer

specifically declared that preparation for complete living should be

the purpose of education. Spencer developed a new curriculum

design of his own in which the subjects were categorized on a priority

order of their respective worth. Spencer gave first preference to

knowledge which leads directly to self- preservation. The subjects

coming within this category are physiology, hygiene, physics and

chemistry. They are to be treated as subjects of first importance.

Next comes knowledge which leads indirectly to self preservation.

This includes the sciences and arts which help securing food,

clothing and shelter. Third, in order to priority, comes knowledge that

administers to the rearing of offspring’s. Both the parent and the

teacher must learn how to develop the child properly. Fourth comes

the knowledge of social and political life which will make one an

intelligent neighbor and citizen. Last in the priority order, comes the

knowledge of literature, art, aesthetic and languages which comprise

the leisure part of life. He advocated for a practical utilitarian

approach in education in place of the traditional classical approach.

Spencer interpreted education as a process of one’s intellectual,

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moral and physical development. According to Spencer true concrete

knowledge could be acquired through self-effort. Education must be

based on experienced facts and acquired through observation.

Education to the child should be a joyous endeavor and an

interesting venture. Hence education should make room for rhymes,

fairy tales and play. Spenser developed certain maxims of method

which comprise proceeding

1. from the simple to the complex;

2. from the inductive to deductive;

3. from the concrete to the abstract;

4. from the empirical to the rational and

5. Self development as the process of education.

Therefore, we can say that Herbert Spencer, the naturalist,

rests upon the idea that man has to prepare for the future adjustment

with the social environment. For this purpose an individual requires to

have scientific knowledge and vocation oriented education.

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 Madam Maria Montessori’s contribution in the field education is

remarkable, specially, for young one’s her innovative ideas are still

applied successfully in the modern schools. She has revolutionized

the whole field of educational practice when she evolved a new

method based upon the child’s actual living conditions and his

physical and mental capacities. Maria Montessori, in her approach to

childhood, bases her method of education on naturalism. She

believes that the child is a body which grows and a soul which

develops. The teacher should care for the child in a manner so that

the natural growth is guided in the process of unfolding itself. She

holds that freedom is the right of every child and every human being

and advocates the spontaneous development of the child through

complete liberty. The child’s individuality must not be crushed

through collective handling. The teacher must know each child

individually, not only his mental development, but the child’s physical

development as well. The teacher should not interfere with or force

the child to learn in a particular way or at a certain rate. Each child

should progress at his own rate and gain self-education through the

apparatus provided for the individual child. The senses of touch,

hearing, taste and smell are developed through the apparatus

provided for the individual child. She has provided practical exercises

in her school which enable children to learn good habits of

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cleanliness and order. The students learn the lesson of dignity of

labor and self help by attending to their needs themselves. There

are three types of exercises that are provided in the children’s

school.

1. Exercise in practical life.

2. Sense training exercise.

3. Didactic exercise for teaching languages and arithmetic.

It should be clear that as a naturalist Maria Montessori vouches

fullest freedom to the child. Even interference of the teacher was

highly criticized. To her education does never mean an imposition of

something on children, nor does this means the acquisition of some

information from outside. Rather, education is the active help given to

the normal expansion of the life of a child. She believes that it is

through freedom and in an atmosphere of love, sympathy and care

that a child can develop his powers and possibilities. All these

concepts are clear in her curriculum pattern also. Curriculum in this

system of education naturally includes the activities concerned with

daily lives of the children. Activity is the central point in this system of

education. Besides activities, curricula include language, arithmetic,

geometry, writing, etc. Writing, according to Montessori, should

precede reading. Reading to be learnt requires much longer time,

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patience and mental preparation, whereas writing can be easily

taught to the children with the help of Touch Method.

Rabindranath Tagore’s school in Shantiniketan upholds in

many respects the chief principles of naturalism. As a naturalist

philosopher, Tagore gave practical shape to his ideology. Tagore

was a realist. He also deserves credit for having attempted for the

revival of ancient Indian ideals of education in the modern times. He

pointed out the great significance of the school atmosphere in the life

of children. The cultural atmosphere keeps the mind sensitive to rich

racial inheritance, glorious traditions and rich culture. Nature forms

the very core of Rabindranath’s educational concept. True education

is one that communicates freely with the life of nature. The child

learns and develops through it with a healthy body and mind Nature

nurses the child like a mother and develops him as a teacher. The

sight, sounds, music and rhythm in the life of nature stimulate and

inspire him every moment of his life. Nature’s education forms the

best part of education – free and spontaneous education according

to the child’s nature. The child should have a free access to the world

of experiences, knowledge and understanding of his environmental

world and its laws. The principle of joy and creativity is a must for

ideal education. Creativity is a mixture of freedom and discipline.

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According to Tagore, a child’s potentialities and powers find their

best expression through creative outlets. Tagore is the first great

educator to introduce open-air school in the lap of nature in such a

large way. He developed a curriculum without a set frame. It was a

curriculum evolving out of the child’s life itself, the life that the child

lives is the curriculum. Continuous communication of the child with

his life outside, all the activities he participated in, and the ever

growing world of relation and experiences gained thereby,

constituted his knowledge and education. Theoretical study just

supplemented it. Open air free movements, games and sports, dance

and music observation and reflection, self-activity and independence

– all came within its scope. Nature study and appreciation of the

beauties of life and nature formed the core of this curriculum. It is a

truly flexible developing curriculum. It is a totally life-centered

curriculum. Such a curriculum is a constant source of joy and

inspiration for the child. From the above, it transpires that Tagore’s

curriculum is fully nature-oriented and largely based on the

philosophy of naturalism.

Naturalism has brought to the forefront the importance and

recognition of the child in the educative process. It advocates that

education should be a pleasurable activity for children. The child’s

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interest in and readiness to learn a topic should be assigned due

importance. Naturalism stresses that; education should engage the

spontaneous self-activity of the child. Naturalism in education draws

our attention to the aesthetic aspect of surroundings. This also

implies that schools should be located in natural surroundings. Thus

education can be imparted in the open. Similarly the curriculum also

shows the same picture.

(i) It is based on the nature of the child, his interest,

etc.

(ii) It lays stress on subjects that are helpful in self-

preservation.

(iii) It gives emphasis on basic sciences.

(iv) It also emphasizes on physical and health

education.

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3.3 Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a middle way between naturalism and idealism.

According to the pragmatic philosophy, whatever fulfils one’s

purposes and develops his life is true. And Pragmatism does not

accept any absolute value. Pragmatism protests against the formality

in instruction and considers learning as an active process rather than

a passive acceptance of facts. Historically, the pragmatic approach

can be traced to Protagorous, a Sophist philosopher of ancient

Greece who said, “Man is the measure of all things’15. He critically

analyzed idealism and redefined truth and knowledge in terms of

experience and their practical consequences. The terms

‘pragmatism’ derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to

make or to accomplish. Action gets priority over thought. Idea is due-

to-action, nothing more. Everything is tested on the touch-stone of

experience. Will Durant sums up pragmatism as “the doctrine that

truth is the practical efficacy of an idea’16 According to him,

pragmatism is not a philosophy but a method – the method of

experimentation. Here nothing is fixed in advance, everything is

changing. Similarly values are instrumental only. They are used as

means to attain certain ends. There are no final and fixed values.

They are evolved and are not true for all times and for all situations.

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Pragmatism has cast its tremendous influence upon modern

education, comprising child-centralism in education, the recognition

of the importance of vocational and scientific-cum-technological

studies in education together with the study of human society. The

modernization of educational curricula and activity method are some

of the contributions of pragmatism.

The curricular pattern follows from the view that nothing is

constant and that in his early years of development the child is the

measure of all things educational. Great philosophers like Herbert

Spencer, John Dewey attached importance to the utilitarian aspect of

studies. So in pragmatism curricula include the first essentials of

individual life and also the constituents of social life which occupy no

less an important place in the pragmatic scheme of education. As

pragmatist places importance upon activity, utility, practicability and

change, so traditional division of curriculum into subjects of

instruction is negated here and in its place comes the principle of

integration. In pragmatic thinking curriculum must have a blend

between theory and practice, knowledge and skill, living experience

and learning process. Knowledge is an aid to this adjust mental

process. Curriculum is to centre round the individual’s life-

experiences and the physical and socio-cultural environment.

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Through the unending process of reconstruction of experiences an

individual develops his powers and participates in the social process

which is synonymous with educational process. Consequently,

language, literature, philosophy, history, geography, mathematics,

sciences, vocational studies and other recreational subjects having

bearing upon individual and social life have occupied important

place in curriculum.

Pragmatism gives us several criteria for curriculum

construction. Utility is the first criterion for this purpose. This school

must provide learning and experiences that are useful to the child;

hence the curriculum is to include subjects that will impart knowledge

and various types of skills which the child needs in his present as

well as future life. Languages, physical education, social studies,

mathematics, home–economics for girls, agricultural science for

boys, as well as many useful crafts and skills are included in the

curriculum. The ‘utility criterion’ – implies direct education and

training for a vocation, as the pupil advances to the higher stages, in

the school.

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 The curriculum is to be governed by the child’s natural interests

during the successive stages of his development. In the elementary

school, for example, the child is interested in communication, inquiry,

construction and artistic expression. Hence, the curriculum at the

elementary level will include such tools of knowledge as listening,

speaking, reading, writing, number, nature study, arts and crafts.

The curriculum in pragmatic practices is based on the child’s

occupation and activities as well as his own experiences. Learning is

not merely book learning, it involving doing; it is an active process,

not a passive assimilation of facts. Discussion, questioning, inquiry,

touching and handling of objects, tools and making things are

characteristic of learning situations. Each and every learning has a

practical aspect which must be selected and initiated by the child or a

group of children. The activities may be in the classroom, in the

school, or even going out into the community. If these activities are

similar to the activities of the community of which the school is a part,

they will develop moral virtues, result in attitudes of initiative of

independence and will give training in citizenship, and promote self-

discipline.

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 The principle of integration and correlated activities should

guide in curriculum construction. This principle assumes the unity of

knowledge and skill. Such integration is not possible if the curriculum

is divided into independent and separate “subjects’. The subjects

should be integrated and presented as modes of activity which are

purposive and connected by a common theme. Compartmentalized

subject–matter, taught by different teachers, at different times, during

specified subject periods should be substituted by “learning activity”

period in which knowledge is imbibed as a whole. The different

aspects of knowledge are examined, studied and learnt in relation to

a specified need or activity in which the child becomes interested.

Curriculum, therefore, consists of activities but all are child centered

activities.

John Dewey is the chief exponent of the pragmatic philosophy.

Dewey’s programme has been variously called ‘Experimentalism’,

‘Functionalism’, ‘Instrumentalism’, Operationalism’, ‘Practicalism’ and

above all ‘Pragmatism’17 All these indicate his emphasis on the

dynamic and ever-charging character of life. Dewey tests every

hypothesis or belief or principle by the way it works or by its

consequences. He does not believe in the existence of any absolute

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values or ultimate moral principles which are static and

unemployable. He said that there are no fixed beliefs. He also insists

that the intellect is subordinate to practical ends. ‘Utility’ is the

touchstone of every value. Pragmatism teaches that whatever is

useful or works in a practical situation is true. Truth thus becomes not

a fixed eternal thing but something that is subject to change. Dewey

also attaches great importance to child and child centered-education.

He analyses the interests of the child into four groups.

(i) Interest in conversation or communication.

(ii) Interest in enquiry, or finding out things.

(iii) Interest in making things or construction.

(iv) Interest in artistic expression.

Thus the different activities of the real life will determine the

contents of the curriculum.

Dewey’s contribution in the field of curriculum is also

remarkable in the modern system of education. In view of the task of

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educating so many children at so many educational levels with such

a variety of abilities, needs and goals require a completely different

approach. With this increase in a diversified school population,

Dewey advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed

and emphasis should be placed on the total development of the

person as being equally important as the intellectual and the

academic. Such a curriculum acknowledges that the social

responsibilities of education must present situations where problems

are relevant to the problems of living together, and where

observation and information are calculated to develop social insight

and interest. According to Dewey social life cannot be cut into pieces

of knowledge. Departmentalization of the curriculum and the

systematic succession of studies have to be replaced by elastic

programmes of activities. The subject-matter of geography,

arithmetic and grammar should come out of school situation in

answer to social needs. Dewey notes that the child’s interests are

concrete and human. When he first comes to school, he is eager for

activities and experiences of all sorts. A child likes to manipulate

things, to build and construct. So the curriculum should consist of

real and concrete life activities that are carried on in the outer world

and these should require co-operative mutual efforts. To act in such

a way as to produce desired result always involves difficulties and

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problems. To get over them, the children must exercise their

intellectual abilities. Thus not only will they acquire skills and habits

of doing things but also necessary ideas and training of their own

mental powers. They will also acquire a social sense of their own

powers and of the materials and appliances used.

The greatest contribution of Dewey is his democratic

philosophy of education. Here both individual and social factors are

emphasized and harmonized. It has been interpreted as the process

of conforming the individual to the democratic social standard in such

a way that his inherent capacities are developed. It is he who has

drawn the attention of all educators to the socialization of education

through the personal social experiences to be provided in schools.

He has rendered a great service in trying to bridge the gulf between

life and school, between theory and practice, between interest and

effort. He has saved the children from the tyranny of purely abstract

studies unrelated to their lives. Instead of these, they are given

productive activities in which they are interested by nature. The

project method is the direct outcome of his teachings. Activity

curriculum, experience curriculum are the natural developments of

his philosophy of education. Dewey’s social theory of education,

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coupled with the logic of experimental method, has been very

influential in the development of modern education practice. The

greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of the

experiences of the child. The child is no longer regarded as a passive

subject meant for the imposition of external information but is

considered as an active living being whose interests have to be

stimulated by participation in socially significant experiences. This

kind of participation, if intelligently and devotedly engaged in, is a

kind of moral experience. Thus instead of the old emphasis on

mechanical memorizing of subject–matter it is essential to stress the

meaningful dimensions of the process of learning. Dewey tried to

introduce a more human touch in the processes of education. He has

been famous for interpreting the school as a community for the

realization of the significance of the immediate experience and

present opportunities of the child. The most significant contribution of

Dewey to a philosophy of education is the theory of scientific

democratic humanism. Dewey’s contribution can be rightly expresses

in the words of Rusk. Rusk writes, “In education we cannot but be

grateful to Dewey for his great service in challenging the old static

storage ideas of knowledge and in bringing education more into

accord with the actualities of the present day life.”18

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 Our philosopher educator Mahatma Gandhi preaches the same

principle of correlation of studies. Gandhi is a constant seeker after

truth, a believer in certain values which give content and significance

to life. Gandhiji’s thought on education forms the dynamic side of his

general philosophy. By education, Gandhi means “an all round

drawing out of the best in the child and man – body, mind and

spirit.”19 Gandhiji’s educational philosophy took shape through his

educational experience at the Tolstoy Farm at Transvaal in South

Africa. There he undertook the responsibility of educating his own

sons and other children. The children had to devote eight hours a

day for vocational training and only two hours for book learning. The

children aged from 6 to 16 were very happy in learning by doing and

learning by cooperation. Gandhi followed three basic principles:

(i) The good of man is to be found in the good of all.

(ii) The work of a barber is as good as that of a lawyer, both

being the means to earn one’s livelihood.

(iii) The farmer, the labor or any other individual who is doing

physical labor must be given due importance.

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 Thus education cannot be confined to childhood and youth – it

has to take into account the whole life of a man. So education will not

be complete till one realizes the self. Education is through life and for

life. Education must take care of the whole child, the human

personality, in all its aspects – physical, intellectual and spiritual.

According to Gandhi, the function of education is to bring about a

harmonious development of all the aspects of human personality so

that it can grow to its highest stature and serve the society at its best.

According to Shri M.S. Patel, Gandhiji’s contribution to the pragmatic

philosophy of education is unique. The introduction of a basic craft as

the centre of education, the co-ordination and correlation of the

content of the close relationship of education with actual life, the

method of learning by doing, the individual initiative, the sense of

total responsibility and emphasis on experiment as the means of

discovering truth are some of the outstanding features of Gandhiji’s

pragmatic philosophy of education. Gandhi believes that reality is

that which can be verified. Gandhi advocates like a pragmatist that a

child should learn from the real experiments of life. The project

method of the pragmatist and the basic scheme of Gandhi have

many similarities. Like a project, a basic craft is to be a socialized

activity involving participation in social relationships. According to

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Gandhi, education should be closely related to life. Wardha scheme

unifies knowledge and does not allow division of knowledge into

water-tight compartments. Everything is to be taught through the

principle of correlation. There are three centers of correlation – craft,

physical environment and social environment of the child. These

three centers of correlation will achieve perfect integration of

curriculum. Mother tongue, according to Gandhi, is not only to

become the medium of instruction but to occupy the first place in

languages. All expression in natural way is possible through mother

tongue. He suggested that primary education should be extended to

seven years and should include the general knowledge gained up to

the matriculation standard. All training should be given through a

profit–yielding vocation. This will enable the pupil to pay for his tuition

through the products of his labor. At the same time his whole

personality will be developed through the vocation practiced at

school. Thus Gandhiji’s concept of education becomes clearer in his

method of teaching and content of education or curriculum. Gandhi

suggested the following studies in the Basic Scheme in order to

develop the whole man – the intellectual, physical and spiritual

powers.

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In a very precise way we can enumerate them in the following:

• A basic craft in accordance with the local conditions.

• Mother tongue.

• Arithmetic.

• Social studies.

• General science including nature study, botany, zoology,

physiology, hygiene, chemistry and physical culture.

• Art work.

• Music.

• Domestic science for girls.

Those subjects are to be taught through the craft as the centre

of correlation. Gandhi thinks that only the right type of teachers can

help in achieving the objectives of education. These teachers should

possess knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, patriotism and special training.

They should be inspired by social attitudes and be imbued with ideals

of non – violence or Ahinsa. Gandhiji’s philosophy of education is

sound psychologically, sociologically and biologically. Gandhi saw

that the child can make intellectual progress only through activity

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which is purposive and productive. Pedagogically, too, Gandhiji’s

educational theory is sound. The craft-centered education will give

greater concreteness and reality to the knowledge acquired by

children. The greatest achievement of Gandhi, according to Shri M.S.

Patel, is that “he in his educational philosophy, gives due place to the

dominant tendencies of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism which

fuse into a unity, give rise to a theory of education which would suit

the needs of the day and satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the human

soul.”20

An interesting thing about Gandhiji’s philosophy of education is

that it combines the essentials of the three philosophical doctrines,

namely, naturalism, idealism and pragmatism. Gandhi, like the

naturalists, believes in the essential goodness of child nature and

emphasized on activity or learning by doing. Gandhi was an idealist

to the core. He has stressed the dignity of man and significance of

values in life. Like Froebel, Gandhiji’s belief that education should

awaken the latent potentialities to their fullest development. In the

words of Dr. Patel, “Gandhiji’s philosophy of education is naturalistic

in its setting, idealistic in its aim and pragmatic in its method and

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programme of work. All these tendencies are not separate in his

philosophy.”21

The foregoing discussion shows that pupil’s immediate

experiences, felt needs and purposes play a prominent role in the

determination of educational programmes and policies. Pragmatism

puts emphasis on free flow of ideas, spirit of inquiry of investigation

and of discussion. Thus the fundamental principles of pragmatism

are as follows:

1. Truth is that which works in practical situation.

2. Action is real, ideas are tools.

3. Man is an active being.

4. There are no absolute values of life.

5. It places its faith in man’s ability to solve his problems through

the logic of the scientific methods.

6. Knowledge is always tentative and functional.

Pragmatism thus shows clear stress on social and physical

environment. It gives emphasis on child-centered education.

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Experience and experiments remains as the basis of learning.

Considering all these points we can see that pragmatism stresses on

experience curriculum. It regards utility as the prime mover in the

determination of curriculum. It gives due place to the interests of the

child. Pragmatism provides for problem–solving activities. It gives

emphasis on subjects like physical training, hygiene, social studies,

mathematics and sciences. Curriculum provides for creative activities

in the teaching–learning process. It advocates purposeful activities.

Curriculum includes activities which lead to learning through

experience. Hence curriculum, based on pragmatic philosophy, not

only makes learning process interesting but also utility-based and

thus helps to the students to develop themselves into effective and

useful citizens in future. In fact, it should be regarded as the most

significant aspect of practice-oriented education in that here

education is not considered to be a mere learning of theories in

abstraction, but a learning which makes the students aware of the

use-value of the theories they learn. In a word, pragmatism makes

education a helpful instrument for making life valuable in the most

concrete terms.

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 Conclusion

An educated and enlightened citizen is an essential condition

for success of democracy. In most of the developed countries,

education is compulsory up to the secondary stage. But in the

developing countries like India, education up to the primary stage is

considered very essential for every citizen. The constitution provides

for compulsory education of children up to the age of 14 years.

Several measures were visualized to achieve this objective, such as

organization of the schools, free supply of text books and extension

of the mid-day meal programme. Greater attention was paid to

secure an increase in the enrolment of girls, special steps to increase

the supply of women teachers etc. Generally it happens that a large

number of students leave the school before the completion of primary

education. Kothari commission has pointed out that wastage at the

lower stage is very large. Unless this huge wastage is eliminated and

children are retained in schools, the purpose of providing compulsory

education will be completely defeated. We are here to find out the

ways to minimize the wastage and stagnation level. For this reason I

have started the discussion with the basic concepts of education like

what we the general people mean by education, what are the

expectations of the individuals from formal education and so on. It

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seems to me that of late people are more worried about the future

than present. But if our present is disturbed, past is neglected, and

then surely our future will be in trouble. In my discussion I have tried

to analyze the meaning of education from various angles. It shows

that education has its root in our past. We cannot neglect our past

because our rich culture will help the present generation to hold its

future more strongly. The concept of life long process is a total

picture of past, present and future. The concept of life long education

forces a redefinition of educational objectives and brings us back to

focus all education solely on man, his growth and development. In

primary education, the purpose will not be passing examinations but

the capacity of each pupil to learn and grow. Again learning and

growing is not enough for a child. It should be observed whether

children are developing, acquiring and preserving right values for the

future. To make my study more concrete and precise, I should find

out the areas in which we need to develop.

A clear picture of the meaning, functions and objectives of

education may be explained in this format.

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 Educative Process

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (7)

(6)
How to
Educate
(Methods of
Teaching)

It has already been discussed that for compulsory education

teacher, school, materials are to be given due importance. Similarly

new methods and innovative ideas are developing continuously to

make the teaching methods more effective. But regarding curriculum

construction, as I feel, it needs some more support from

philosophical aspects.

In the introductory part, I have given the reason for my

selecting this field of work. “Philosophical Foundations of curriculum

at primary stage of Education” give a total idea along with some

specific fields to which I have drawn attention. And then I have

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discussed the meaning of education, because before establishing the

foundation we must have a clear picture of the meaning of education

from various angles and its close relation with philosophical thoughts.

Meaning of Education is a very simple word but if studied deeply it

will mean a deep sense of thought. I have studied the meaning from

various angles, especially what the general mass of people think and

what a philosopher and an educationist really believe.

To make my discussion more clear and concrete, I have

introduced two concepts of it - a broader concept and a narrower

concept of education I believe that education cannot be restricted

within specific areas and periods. It is a life long process. Individuals

should be always ready to learn. The traditional rigid narrower

concept of education cannot be accepted in the present structure of

our society, because today we have to stress more importance on

children and not merely on strict rules. While analyzing the broader

and narrower concepts of education, I have found it easy to explain

the views from philosophical ground. This is because all the great

philosophers establish their views on some specific schools of

philosophy, like John Dewey who defines education as life itself, to

him it is a growth oriented process. According to Gandhi, it is an all

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round drawing of the best in the [Link] is not only guidance

and direction but it is a continuous process of adjustment.

As I have already stated that my everyday experience of

handling primary children, leads me to the view that we should keep

pace with latest developments and technological expansion,

maintaining a sound strong philosophical ground in deciding the

goals of education for children at primary stage. I have also tried my

best to make a synthesis of the best of Western and Eastern

interpretations of education. While discussing from our Indian

perspective, I have felt that from Ancient period, all the great

educators like Panini, Shankaracharya regarded education to be

synonymous with self- realization. Swami Vivekananda, the modern

exponent of Vedanta Philosophy, perceived education as the

manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man. Sri

Aurobinda’s concept of education is deeply influenced, controlled and

guided by his philosophy of life. It shows clearly that our great Indian

philosophers stressed much emphasis on the philosophies of life in

determining the goals of education. For the benefit of the children,

we should try to accept the positive sides of the Western

philosophies also. Regarding the concept of education we should be

very much flexible and broad-minded. According to the western

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concept, a man is superior to other animals as he is educable. Great

western philosophers like Rousseau, Friederick Forefeel and others

gave special emphasis on children. I have tried to highlight this angle

and tried to show that in western thoughts children were given

special place in the whole system of education. We should

implement and try to remember these views before taking major

steps in educating children. We should start to judge everything from

this western concept that children are our centre of thoughts.

According to western philosophers, a child develops his potentialities

through conscious direction and guidance which is nothing but the

natural process of education. So I am convinced to believe that

Indian and western philosophical ideals can be synthesized to give a

better modern meaning of education specially benefited for the young

children.

In my thesis I have dealt with primary stage of education. It is a

very vital stage in the formal system of education. While discussing

formal type of education I simultaneously have tried to highlight the

role of informal as well as non-formal system of education. Especially

in the case of children we find that most of their time they spend with

their family. So only formal education will not give positive result. A

human child is born in a family which is his primary social habitat. It is

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within the family that he gets his first experience and enters into

relationship with other human beings. It has been observed that both

wastage and stagnation are prominent in the formal type of education

because of the examination pattern and inability to attain the classes

regularly and such like. On the other side child labour, early

marriage, economic crisis and malnutrition are the various reasons

for wastage and stagnation at primary stage of education. To solve

all these problems we should try to abolish the barriers between the

different forms of education. Formal education on one hand and non-

formal and informal education on other side should work

simultaneously. We should try to accept all the positive sides as and

when required, e.g. both full time and part time, formal schools and

non-formal arrangements are required to make primary education

universal. Similarly for curriculum construction their subjects must

include the knowledge of Hindi, mathematics, ecology and social

environmental situations. Suitable books, considering their

conditions, should be prepared to make education more effective

.Lessons should be concerned with the day-to-day experience of the

students, e.g. there should be lessons of human physiology, the

science of the family, citizenship, etc., to promote the concept of

citizenship. Therefore the flexibility and adaptability of the curriculum

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should be made the criteria of the primary stage in any form of

education.

Now-a-days we are very much aware of the terms “general

stream” and “special stream” of education. Generally people are

giving much importance on special education so that every individual

can achieve some specific goals in his future life. This trend now-a-

days becomes so strong that the parents are pressurizing their

children from very young stage. In this confusion we should not

forget that in the society, we live in two worlds-one is world of thought

and another is world of work. These two worlds are not separated but

related with each other. One should not forget that through general

education a man is to get an acquaintance with his world. The school

should always have as its aim that the young man leaves the school

as a harmonious personality, not as specialist. The development of

general ability for independent thinking and judgment should always

be placed foremost. The general education is to produce socially

conscious citizens and men of high ideals and character. It is said

that general education is idealistic, while vocational education is

materialistic and pragmatic in nature. As we are here concerned with

primary stage of education, it would be suggested that general

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education will be the most suitable one for them, as they need a

strong foundation.

Here, I have been dealing with primary stage of education

which means the basic formal stage of education. This process

implies the existence of some indispensable elements without which

education does not carry any meaning. I have thoroughly discussed

the importance of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum and the

educational environment. All these four factors are integrally related

with other. I have tried to establish their role from philosophical point

of view. All the great philosophers gave their valuable viewpoints

from their own schools of thought. This has helped us immensely in

selecting the right schools of thought. In dealing with meaning of

curriculum and its relation with education, I find that in every step

there has been a strong influence of philosophy. From determining

the goal of education to framing of curriculum, I find it has been more

logical to have philosophical bases. Here I have discussed both the

traditional concept and modern concept of curriculum. The modern

concept gives a vivid and concrete picture of curriculum’s concept. It

is a systematic and organized content or subject matter and gives

emphasis on experience within and outside the school walls.

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Curriculum reform in recent years has grown out of attempts to bring

the modern conceptual and methodological status of subject matter.

Progressive educators have conceived curriculum as guided

experiences and have emphasized that the curriculum must take into

account the needs of existing community life. They have viewed

curriculum as educational needs or outcomes, more specifically as

the learning outcomes intended to be achieved through instruction.

The curriculum programmes should be made on the needs of the

society and interests of the pupil. It is an aid in the process of

adjusting the child to the environment in which he will have to

organize his activities later. All these need a sound philosophical

basis. Earlier, I have discussed that today’s present children are our

future citizens. Hence, they should be honest, dutiful and should

contribute to the society. Simultaneously they should be able to earn

their own livelihood. To frame a curriculum for satisfying all these

needs, we need a sound synthesis of few schools of philosophy,

Idealism, pragmatism and naturalism are the three schools which will

help to build a strong foundation. Ideas of the schools will be rightly

applied during the time of curriculum construction because

curriculum should be graded in accordance with the varying

demands and interests of the different age groups.

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 In curriculum construction the modern approach assumes the

children as decision makers and problem solvers. This concept is

essentially process oriented and demands increased professionalism

among teachers. Therefore while constructing a curriculum we

should diagnose the need and then we will formulate the objective for

selection and organization of content which are depended on these

factors. Framing curriculum is the vital work of an educationalist

rather specifically the work of a teacher. A teacher is one who meets

children regularly in the school. Teachers should focus more on the

active mental faculties of the pupils. The true art of teaching is to

awaken the interest in the pupil to master the subject. Thus a

teacher’s work is not limited by giving only information. Rather, an

ideal teacher should be efficient enough to make a child logical. It is

often observed that dependence of education on philosophy is

marked more significantly in the field of curriculum. According to the

naturalists the present experiences, activities and interests should be

the guiding factors. According to idealist the experiences of the

human race as epitomes in sciences and humanities should provide

the primary consideration in deciding a curriculum. On the other side,

the pragmatist emphasizes the principle of utility as the main criterion

for determining the nature of curriculum. It is in the area of curriculum

planning, that philosophy in education reflects itself. The goals and

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objectives of educational effort can be implemented through a

curriculum which translates them into subjects, units of instruction

themes and topics which enter the classroom. They are to be

reflected into the reading, the instruction and the activities of the

pupils under the guidance and direction of the teacher. It shows that

every teacher, educator needs to be well versed in the philosophy of

education and how it affects decisions made in the school curriculum.

Educational philosophers, regardless of the particular theory, suggest

that the solutions to our problems can best be achieved through

critical and reflective thought. Thus we can say that philosophy of

education is the application of philosophical ideas to educational

problems. When a course of study is prepared in advance in a school

system by a selected group of teachers, this represents philosophy,

because a course of action had been selected from many choices

involving different values. For constructing the curriculum of primary

stage, we should keep enough space for the children so that they

can play with their own curiosity and instinct. We should focus on the

subjects which are useful and interesting to them.

In the previous discussions I have highlighted about the

importance of general education at primary stage of education. A

child should first acquire a good standard of general education, then

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he or she will have no problem in selecting any specific field in later

life. I have also discussed in detail the various aims of primary

education. It clearly shows that primary education is concerned with

various aspects of child development and not with any single specific

area. The purpose of primary education is to develop and sustain

skills and attitudes of the child which will enable him to take his place

effectively and competently in society, fitting him to make a choice of

an occupational role and to live harmoniously in his community. To

make future good citizens we should focus on three main aspects of

human being. These are the social, cultural and moral aspects of a

man. Education is the only way and philosophy is the only base

which should help an individual to realize the qualities present in

man. This will also help an individual to execute them properly.

Therefore we can rightly say that proper general stream of education

is very essential for primary stage of education.

Framing curriculum for general stream, at primary stage of

education, needs proper philosophical foundations. Philosophical

foundations are those elements of philosophy which have a bearing

on choices made in regard to the purposes and the contents of the

school. Education and philosophy are closely related with each other.

Philosophy looks at the ends and purposes of life in the light of the

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ultimate reality; on the other side, education signifies self

development of man in and through his life experiences. Thus in a

real sense, education is a practical philosophy and touches life at

every point. In the formal system of education, the need of

philosophy is felt very seriously in the area of curriculum planning. I

have dealt with the three schools of philosophy, namely naturalistic,

pragmatist and idealistic schools of philosophy. As I see, each school

has its own specific characteristics. As we have seen, these schools

have positive side as well as negative side. It is best to bring a

synthesis between the three. Even our great philosophers and

educators were unable to stick to a single school of philosophy. For

instance, Rabindranath Tagore was a naturalist, always gave

emphasis on natural and spontaneous development of a child in and

around natural environment. That is why his dream school is in

Shantiniketan. But thinking the condition of the country, he gave

special emphasis on art and craft. To make the individuals

economically independent, he advocated various occupational

trainings. It shows that he was not only a naturalist but had a strong

pragmatic outlook. Similarly, Gandhiji was a pragmatist, who always

gave importance to utilitarian education. That is why he advocated

craft centered basic education. On the other hand, like Vivekananda,

Gandhiji stood for ‘Man-making’ education. According to

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Vivekananda, education is self revelation. Both of them gave

emphasis on ideals of life and culture of our country. I have tried to

bring a synthesis between education and philosophy, between the

various factors of education and lastly between the three schools of

philosophy. Here I have come to conclusion that education is a

human enterprise. It is a process and kind of activity in relation to

human beings. It is a continuous effort to develop all capacities of the

child to control his achievements and fulfill his requirements. It is

directed as desirable goals which are fixed by the society according

to the individual and social needs. The entire superstructure of

educational set up of a nation rests on primary education. The

growth, development and enrichment of mental as well as physical

potentialities of the child depend on primary education. If the child is

guided properly in primary educational stage, the secondary

educational stage automatically builds up. To make primary

education universal, along with formal system, non-formal education

with flexible timings and activity oriented curriculum is very essential.

In this study, I have always tried to establish the importance of

primary education and hence it is also accepted that a strong

philosophical foundation is very essential in this stage of education.

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While discussing the three schools of philosophy, I have tried to

ensure the point that, we should accept all the positive sides of the

three schools. Even our great educators have furnished valuable

thoughts basing on different schools of philosophy. All this is

applicable while framing a sound curriculum for young children. In

brief, we can sum up as follows –

Idealism upholds human culture as the highest manifestation of

the human personality. For this reason it attaches importance to

human race as a whole. Considering the present condition of our

country when there is a constant erosion of values, we need to

accept this school of philosophy from this point of view. For fixing the

aims and objectives we should take the help of idealism.

Naturalism is essential to implement all these aims in the field

of education. From this school of philosophy we should accept the

concept of individual differences. The curriculum should be according

to the nature and capacity of the individuals. Curriculum must be

activity–centered, flexible and integrated. Learning and living should

have a happy blending. Naturalism will help us to frame an activity

based curriculum for children.

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 Pragmatism is the theory which emphasizes practice or action.

We should accept this view because here we are dealing with young

children who love actions. Another principle of pragmatism is that

nothing is constant. It also views education as a social process. It

means that this school emphasizes both on the individual as well as

the society. Therefore curriculum is effective if work and activity do

figure in the child’s education and learning experience. Well-

structured and planned programmes, socially useful productive

activities are essential for every young child. These should reflect the

needs of the locality, as well as the abilities and interests of students.

In my thesis I want to accentuate the significance of primary

education as a formal stage of education and influence of philosophy

in the field of education. Here I have been able to highlight certain

areas and concepts of curriculum development as a vital factor of

education. I believe these concepts will help in driving further

developments in the field of primary education in our country.

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