ELECTRICAL BASICS
Voltage
Voltage is the potential difference between two points in a circuit.
The unit of measurement is Volt (V).
It is the pressure of the system.
Current
Current is the rate of flow of electrons.
The unit of measurement is Ampere (A).
Power Watts
Power is the ability to do work. It is measured in watts(W).
P=V*A
Energy
Energy is the rate of work done.
The unit of measurement is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Ohms Law
Describes the relationship between voltage, current, resistance and power.
fig 1 : Ohms Law
(from Canadian Solar Institute Training manual)
Series connection
The positive of one module is connected to the negative of the next module.
The Voltage is additive.
The current remains the same.
Parallel connection
The positive of one module is connected to the positive of the next module.
The current is additive.
The voltage remains the same.
It is important to note that the available power is same in either configuration.
Photovoltaic effect
Silicon doped with phosphorus forms the n-layer (negative)
Silicon doped with Boron forms the p-layer (positive)
fig 2 : Photovoltaic effect
(Canadian Solar Institute Training Manual)
Photons hit the Si-P n-layer > energy is absorbed by the extra electrons in the n-layer. The electron
which absorbed the extra energy is now at a higher energy level and can escape the layer. The
electron is attracted to the positive Si-B layer. It travels down the wires that connect the front and
back of the cells. This movement of electrons is Electricity.
Module Degradation
It is important to know that solar modules degrade overtime. This is something that naturally
happens with a photovoltaic cell. Typically modules will degrade by no more than 1% per year. So in
10 years the module should still be producing at least 90% of its rated output.
Mono-crystalline
Single silicon crystal is grown
Round wafers are cut with diamond wire saw so they will fit better into a rectangular area
Typical efficiency 14-17%
Have characteristic white diamond shapes between the cells
Poly-crystalline
Silicon wafers are made from a cast silicon ingot
Molten silicon is poured into a mould
Slowly cooled and cut into wafers
Typical efficiency 11.5-14%
Poly is cheaper to manufacture than mono
Amorphous
Thin film or amorphous
Non-crystalline form of Silicon
Lower costs however lower efficiency 5-9.5%
Allows for innovative technology
Allows for installation on roofs where there is a load issue no rails required
Module Specs
There are many specifications that module manufacturers list, however the following ones are
required for system design.
Voc = open circuit voltage
Vmp = voltage @ maximum power
Isc = short circuit current
Imp = current @ maximum power
Module power = Vmp * Imp
IV curve
All modules have a characteristic IV (current-voltage) curve. There is a point where the product of
the corresponding values for current and voltage are at maximum. This point is called the maximum
power point.
fig 3 : IV Curve
Effect of Solar Radiance on the IV Curve
As solar insolation increases so does the current output from the module. The higher current
results in higher power (wattage) output.
fig 4 : effect of solar radiance on IV Curve
Effect of Temperature on the IV Curve
As the temperature decreases the voltage increases. It is important to account for this change.
fig 5 : effect of temperature on IV Curve
THE SOLAR RESOURCE
Insolation is the quantity of solar irradiance received over a given area of the earths surface per unit
of time.
The standard unit of measure is kWh/m/day
The earths atmosphere receives energy from the sun in the form of light or solar radiation. Air
molecules, water vapour, dust, ozone, and CO either scatter and/or absorb the light (energy). As a
result the amount of energy reaching the earths surface is greatly reduced.
On a clear day, the total insolation striking the earths surface is 1000 W/m
1000 W/m has been defined as full sun, or one sun, and is used as a universal
reference.
1 peak hour = 1 kWh/m
3.6 MJ/m
860 cal/m
Peak Sun Hours
This is a representation of the cumulative hours during the day that received the equivalent of
1000W/m of solar radiance.
For example : 1hour @ 1000 W/m = 1000 Whrs/m
4 hours @ 250 W/m = 1000 Whrs/m
Sun chart
fig 6 : sun path diagram (Jalandhar, India)
([Link]/en/location/[Link])
Insolation levels
Table 1 : solar energy and surface meteorology (Jalandhar, India)
( These data were obtained from the NASA Langley research Centre Atmospheric Science Data Centre; New et
al. 2002 )
Solar Azimuth - It is the angular position of the sun relative to north.
North is 0, therefore South is 180
Solar Altitude- It is the position of the sun, in degrees above the horizon.
Zenith - It is the point in space directly overhead
Zenith Angle = angle between the suns location and zenith
As the zenith angle increases, the suns rays must pass through more of the atmosphere.
fig 7 : 3D illustration of solar elevation, azimuth angle and zenith angle
(Canadian Solar Institute Training Manual)
Solar Noon
It is the time when the sun is at highest position in the sky, for that particular day.
It is when sun is over true South.
It is when the distance that solar radiation must travel through the atmosphere is at a minimum.
The highest intensity of direct solar radiation occurs at solar Noon.
fIg 8 : Solar Noon
(Canadian solar training manual)
Solar Window
The area of the sky that is outlined by the suns path between summer and winter solstices is the
solar window.
fig 9 : solar Window
(Canadian solar manual)
Effects of latitude on the path of the sun
The amount of energy reaching the particular location is strongly dependent on latitude.
As the latitude increases north of the equator summer days becomes longer. The sun is lower in the
sky at solar noon the further north you are.
The hours of sunlight in the winter are much less the further north one travels. The sun at solar
noon is even lower in the sky than in the summer.
Direct radiation
This is strongly affected by atmospheric conditions including water vapour, dust and other airborne
particles which reflect or absorb solar radiation.
The direct component is typically 40-6-% of the global radiation.
Reflected radiation
Ground or surface features may cause reflection of the suns radiation.
Snow, ice, lakes and other bodies of water reflect some of the suns energy.
The results from reflected radiation may be an increase in the insolation bringing it higher than the
1000 W/m average.
GRID-TIE INVERTERS
A power inverter converts DC electricity to AC
Grid-tie inverters = DC power from PV array is converted to AC
Off-grid inverters = DC power from the battery bank is converted to AC
Central Inverters
These are large units usually over 30 kW in size that have several advantages when used in large
systems.
Advantages
1. Cost effective for large projects
2. One point of failure rather than multi point
3. On-site repair is likely so the inverter will likely not have to be disconnected and
shipped out.
Disadvantages
1. Wire runs may be long and therefore costly
2. If a failure occurs the entire array is typically down
3. Heavy equipment needed for installation
String Inverters
A string is a circuit of solar modules that are connected in series
Multiple strings are connected in parallel which keeps the voltage the same but increases the
current.
Micro-Inverters
Single inverter installed for each module.
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
No high voltage DC to worry about
System is easier to expand
Industry leading system monitoring
When an inverter fails only 1 module is affected.
Disadvantages
1. More points of failure if something was to happen and slightly higher system cost.
MECHANICAL ATTACHMENT
Ballast Mount
Flat roofs usually require ballast mount systems. These systems are not fastened to the roof so no
penetrations are made. Penetrations would usually void any roof warranty.
It is important to have a structural engineer ensure that the roof can handle the extra load of the
solar installation and the associated ballast.
Some systems are fastened to flat roofs but usually this is worth new construction where the roofing
contractor flashes around stand-offs that are secured to the structure of the building. If the
penetrations are handled by a roofing contractor then the warranty will usually remain intact.
Pitched Roof
This is usually the simplest of installation as long as the slope is not very steep. Be sure to secure the
feet that support the rails into structural members of the roof system. There are different
techniques that can be used to locate the roof rafter or trusses.
Do not install modules at the very edge of the roof perimeter. There is a substantial increase in wind
loading in these areas.
Pole Mount
Typically you should strive to install off-grid systems on a pole mount. There are several advantages
to doing this. They can be oriented to true South where as a roof may be facing 160. Another
advantage is that pole mounts can usually be seasonally adjusted which will increase performance.
Pole mounts are safer and easier to access then roof mounts when snow accumulation must be
removed. Sites at a latitude of approximately 45 should be tilted to 30 in the summer, 45 in spring
and fall, and to 60 in winter.
Trackers
fig 10 : Tracker
(Canadian Solar Manual)
Solar trackers are devices that follow the movement of the sun. They can be either single, or dual
axis tracking.
Single axis drives follow the suns movement from east to west. Dual axis units follow the suns
change in vertical position as well as tracking it from east to west as shown above.
Single axis trackers can increase the energy harvest over fixed mounts by up to 20% whereas dual
axis trackers increase energy production by a minimum of 30-35%.
Although trackers are extra cost, they are typically worth the investment. Trackers require the
maintenance but it is very minimal. It usually involves greasing the tracker slew drive annually.
Combiner boxes
A combiner box is similar to junction box. String series are combined- wired in parallel. It provides
over-current protection. It is Helpful in commissioning and trouble-shooting.
Disconnect Switches
Must be rated for the purpose
AC or DC power?
Current and Voltage Requirements?
Some models have over-current protection built-in.
Fuses and breakers
Ensure any fuse or breaker used has the proper ratings;
AC or DC rated
Voltage Rating
Current Rating
DC current can easily jump a small gap. DC fuses are designed to extinguish the arc.
Wire
Can be solid or stranded
Copper & Aluminium is available;
o
o
o
o
o
Copper (Cu) may be required by local jurisdictions
Cu can carry more current than Aluminium of the same size
Al is less expensive
Aluminium requires redox paste at all connections
Aluminium is somewhat less durable
Different insulation ratings are available that may have one or several of the following qualities :
UV Resistance (for wire exposed to sunlight)
Heat Resistant
Outdoor use
Wet or dry locations
Oil Resistant
The resistivity of a wire varies directly with its length.
The resistivity of a wire varies inversely with its diameter.
The larger the diameter of the wire, the more is current that can safely flow.
The lower the resistance, lesser is the heat that will be produced in the wire for a given current flow,
resulting in fewer losses.
Table 2 Allowable capacities for not more than 3 copper conductors in cable
(taken from the Canadian Electrical Code: 2012)
80% Rule
The electrical code book states that a wire cannot carry more than 80% of its rated ampacity if the
circuit is deemed continuous use. Continuous use is given to a circuit that could potentially run for
more than two hours in a three hour period. A solar array could produce power for 10-12 hours or
even longer so it is considered a continuous use circuit.
Batteries
Batteries are devices that store electrical energy in the form of chemical energy. When it is needed,
the energy in the chemical form is converted back to electrical energy.
Types
Wet or Dry
Dry batteries are those found in flashlights, alarms, clocks, etc The active material in these
batteries is in the form of a paste.
Wet batteries are those found in automobiles, RVs, boats, etc.. They have a liquid electrolyte which
is sulphuric acid. Some wet batteries are maintenance free and are somewhat sealed. They have to
be charged at a lower voltage to prevent gassing of the electrolyte.
Renewable systems use flooded lead-acid batteries. Flooded lead-acid batteries require some type
of maintenance. The electrolyte level must be monitored and kept from going to low or damage to
the battery will result.
There are also GEM and AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat) batteries which are sealed. The electrolyte is
not in liquid state and therefore will not spill out if the battery is tipped over. There are no caps
that can be removed in order to add electrolyte. They do not off-gas.
