Int. J. Pres. Ves.

& Piping 33 (1988) 219-234

Water Hammer Production and Design Measures in Piping Systems

R. Gillessen & H. Lange

Deutsche Babcock Werke AG Piping Division, P.O. Box 100347-48, D-4200 Oberhausen 1, FRG
(Received 7 November 1987; accepted 30 November 1987)

A B S TRA C T Water hammer in piping systems produces large dynamic forces, which can damage the pipes and supports. Therefore, it is important to minimize the water hammer and its effects on ttie piping system. In this work, reduction of the water hammer by 'active measures' is described--that means the reduction of water hammer effects by influencing the fluid dynamic conditions of the system. Where these measures give no satisfactory results, design measures to control the dynamic forces are described. The article does not claim to be complete, but it does give the engineer some aspects of the design o f the piping system and the supports.

1 INTRODUCTION Pressure waves in piping result from changes in the fluid velocity. Their amount depends on the extent of fluid acceleration or deceleration and on the fluid density as well as the local sound velocity. These pressure waves which run through the piping cause transient forces on the piping system, the extent of which shows the same dependence, whereas their effect is notably influenced by the pipe geometry. For the layout of piping systems in the past only little attention was paid in the initial stage of planning and design to the production of water hammer
219

Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping 0308-0161/88/$03.50 0 1988 Elsevier Applied Science PubliShers Ltd, England, Printed in Great Britain

220

R. Gillessen, H. Lange

and its effect on the system. With increased knowledge of the loads and the possibility of analysing the conditions in a piping system in advance, by means of modern computer programs, it has become possible to reduce water h a m m e r by due design of control elements or an appropriate change of process regulation, and to create the prerequisites for the reduction or removal of any forces arising. Here the effects on the piping and on the supports are relevant. After a short outline of the production and analysis of water hammer, this paper describes the fluid dynamic and design measures which can be taken into account for this type of load.

2 FLUID DYNAMICS
2.1 Production of water hammer

As already mentioned, rapid changes in the velocity of a flowing fluid lead to simultaneous pressure changes which propagate from the point of velocity change with the local sound velocity of the fluid into the piping system. These pressure waves are reflected in different ways at ends, branches or cross-sectional changes: they may combine and apparently run randomly to and fro in the piping until they die out after a certain time as a result of damping. On closer consideration, the pressure wave pattern of a simple system can be reproduced without difficulty. Figure 1 shows a piping system with an isolating valve at one side and a large vessel at the other side. At time t = 0, the fluid (water) flows under constant pressure at a certain rate from the vessel towards the valve. By sudden closing of the valve the water is stopped there, and a pressure wave (Ap) runs upstream at sound velocity. The pressure behind the 'shock wave' is increased by the a m o u n t of the pressure difference. At the vessel a constant pressure prevails, which is applied to the piping system. After a period t = l/a, where a is the sound velocity of water (about 1400 m/s), the wave is reflected at the vessel and a negative pressure wave of the same absolute magnitude ( - p ) runs back to the valve. There a total reflection takes place, which means that the negative pressure wave is reflected so that it returns as a negative pressure wave with twice the pressure difference (2 Ap) to the vessel. F r o m there, a positive pressure wave will then move towards the valve downstream of which the initial pressure prevails. This process is repeated periodically and is characteristic for all water h a m m e r problems.

Water hammer in piping systems

221

reservoir, h=constant

valve

"L"c[osingtime o f _ _ ) the vatve f=t 2o

t_/+t

--U"

I..... - - ,

,~

t _gt - )-~- ~

t = t,.,
Q
II--n

I
V~ V=O

t=3t 2o
f = - 6t
Q

=
_ ,

vo

t_ t_5 ..~

t _ 13t
V=O

vo

t:3t Q
i._7[ -~-

h.
~

V0
. . .

'vo'-

"V=O' '
V--O

t_ 7t k.....~ --~-I ' = - 15[ -

V=O

vo-

v=o

2a

Fig. 1.

Water hammer in a vessel/pipe/valvesystemwithout frictioneffects;rapid closingof valve within the period ~.

2.2 V a l v e o p e r a t i o n s

As already shown above, water hammer is caused by the closing (or opening) of valves but also by flows of the type occurring on pump failure. The amount of pressure difference which is combined with the initial pressure largely depends on the closing (opening) characteristic of the valve. Figure 2 shows the pressure reduction with increasing closing times of the valve. In practice, the closing characteristics of valves or dampers are optimized so that some 80% of the cross-sectional area is closed relatively quickly, while the remaining 20% of the area slowly stops the mass flow by means of damping facilities, in order to avoid excessive pressure peaks.
2.3 A b n o r m a l conditions

Water hammer occurs not only during valve operations but also in connection with abnormal conditions such as p u m p failure or pipe rupture,

222
vh=const.

R. Gillessen, H. Lange

I Vo
L -I (t) I---T----'~ t reflection period of the pipe

(in the absence of friction) O(t)=Oo(1 - f ) f u r ( o s t s x ) O(t)= o for t>~"

I

TR=-~hA "t=1~. TR

hA T :I.T R

hA T=T R

VUVU
"c >TR h A ~ 2"TR ; hmox =
o.v o

VVVV
fin the absence

"'-

TR

of friction)

I
D

- t

(v,,

~"~4

Fig. 2.

Pressure reduction with increasing valve closing periods.

with subsequent sealing of the broken pipe by the closing of a valve. Here the piping system is exposed to double loading. One loading results from the negative (positive) pressure waves which start at the failing pump or run into the system from the point of rupture; the Other, results from the subsequent opening and closing of valves and dampers. The loads thus caused on the piping system can be considerable and must be considered design-wise.
valve vesset

Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of the pressure ramp at time t.

Water hammer in piping systems

223

I J2AF

~7

A Fn
Fig. 4.

F ~, A Pn

N o m e n c l a t u r e o f the axial forces in a piping system, A F n = Axial force in r u n n; A = inside area o f piping system; AP, = pressure difference in r u n n.

2.4 Influence of pipe lengths

As is shown in Fig. 2, the pressure wave decreases with increasing closing time of the valve. Not only does the amount of pressure surge decrease but also the slope of the pressure ramp. The resulting axial transient pipe forces are primarily produced by the pressure differences between the pipe bends. For an entering pressure ramp this pressure difference Ap depends--for the determination of the pipe forces--on the straight pipe section between two pipe bends, because normally only part of this pressure ramp can become effective in the straight pipe section (Fig. 3). This means that the wavefront will already have run around the second bend before the pressure peak has reached the first bend. That implies that with increasing straight pipe lengths between two pipe bends, the loads will increase equally as a result of the water hammer (Fig. 4).

3 ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT FLOW PROCESSES The first basic methods for the analysis of water hammer were given by N. Joukowsky for pressure surges in water piping. He found a mathematical relation which is of fundamental importance for the analysis of water hammer (Fig. 2):
Ap = ap Ac

This relation says that the increase of pressure in a fluid resulting from a change of velocity is proportional to the sound velocity, a, in the fluid, its density, p, and the change of velocity, Ac, of the fluid. The subsequently developed 'characteristics methods' permitted one to treat simple water piping systems graphically.

224

R. Gillessen, H. Lange

The development of high-capacity computer equipment in the 1960s initiated a third stage. With the aid of these units it is possible to quickly integrate partial differential equations which describe the flow conditions, and there is no basic difference between the computation of single-run piping or complex interconnected piping systems which, in former times could hardly be analysed at all. The flow in piping can be completely described by three physical quantities: pressure, density (or temperature), and velocity. For the computation of these quantities three equations are needed, which can be derived from the conservation laws: mass conservation, pulse conservation, and energy conservation. For the solution of the balance equations the difference method is one of those which is available in addition to the characteristics method. Assuming an isentropic or isenthalpic pressure change, the energy equation is replaced by the state equation. In the case of water the state equation is usually given in form of a value table which also accounts for pipe swelling. Pressures and mass flows, as functions of time, can be specified as outside boundary conditions. For inside boundary conditions the following options are provided by most programs: branches, resistance coefficients as a function of time, steam valves, high- and low-damped non-return valves for water, pumps (failing, steady-state), and non-return dampers. For each time step, the state variables (pressure, density and energy) which are needed for the computation of pipe forces between bends by means of the principle of linear momentum, are determined at each position step. In addition to the state variables dependent on time, the results include the pipe forces and time-dependent valve parameters such as lift, damper angle, pump speed, etc.

3.1 Structural dynamics

For the piping design engineer the above results are only the first step. Since he is mainly interested in knowing how the piping will behave under the influence of pressure wave forces. The next step is a dynamic piping system analysis in which the timedependent pressure wave forces are used as input parameters for the excitation of the piping. The results are internal forces, shifts and twists of the pipe with an appropriate stress assessment. Thus, the design engineer will be able to take account of these results in optimizing the piping design.

Water hammer in piping systems

GLF ~ GLF ~ FP ~]~ GLF ~ GLF ~

225

/ origlnat system

GLF~ sliding support with guide FP =~ anchor point

d e f 0 r m e d

system

Fig. 5. Pattern of failure after a water hammer. GLF, Sliding support with guide; FP, anchor point.

4 DESIGN MEASURES A m o n g the design measures available there are those which directly influence the water hammer (called 'active measures' here) and others which are taken to permit a reasonable transmission of pressure and forces to the piping system ('passive measures'). To obtain an impression of the effects of a water hammer, see Figs 5 and 6, from Ref. 3, in which Fig. 5 refers to a damage in a long district heating line of D N 800.
4.1 Active measures

The best design measure is, of course, to completely avoid water hammer and transient forces. This means that in a piping system the fluid must not accelerate or decelerate. But during operation o f a power plant such conditions can hardly be avoided, and in any case they are unavoidable as a result of disturbances to the system.

pressure front at the time t reaction force at the time t

Fig. 6. Support reactions or internal stresses in the piping system.

maximum .135

minimum: 0

maximum: 1888.33 minimum: -/+89.01

QJ > tlD >

. i t--

15DO

.8-lJ

tOO0.
t.. 0 r

E 0 -@ .,[=3
. [ 3 5

5DO

b,1 1:3 L9 ro :>

3c

t0 E 0

~500
__ . . . .

.2

.4

.6

.8

.2

.4

.6

.8

Fig. 7.

time Isecl Water hammer analysis: valve disk lift on pipe rupture of a feedwater line.

Hme (sed
Fig. 8.

Watcr hammer analysis: mass flow pattern on pipe rupture of a feedwater line.

Water hammer in piping systems 4.1.1 Water hammer softening

227

For water hammer occurring in piping there are, however, several ways of reducing the slope of the pressure ramp and the resulting loads by appropriate design measures. As regards valve operations, the closing (and opening) characteristics can be optimized so that the water hammer occurring is kept within tolerable limits while the setting times remain short enough to warrant safe functioning. Figure 7 shows the valve disk lift of a working fluid-controlled non-return valve, which closes on rupturing o f a feedwater line. After initial rapid closing the damping mechanism of the valves is activated and then causes slow closing up to complete shut-off. The related mass flow pattern is given in Fig. 8. Note the strong deceleration of the fluid at the end of the closing phase of the valve. The related pressure variations may be seen on Fig. 9, the pressure being caused during closing of the valve (about 0"35 s) by the final deceleration of the mass flow by the valve. The pressure wave periodically moves to and fro between the steam generator and the valve, with decreasing pressure amplitude.

125

maximum: 12236

minimum: 20.63

lJ i'D

r--

-~

i00

~r r0 cO ~

75

5 0

25

.2

.4

.6

.8

time (see)

Fig. 9. Water hammer analysis: pressure on pipe rupture of a feedwater line.

228

R. Gillessen, H. Lange
max. value: /,,.BB rain v a l u e G..25

4.75

<I: rva
c O co

c-c~ [Link] E

L. m vl QJ

4.2S
, , , r-I

Ill
, , , , I , , , , l , r , , i , , , , l

0.00

I0. O0

20.00

30.00

4.0. O0

SO.O0

time (see)
Fig. !0.

Pressure/time relationship for the cooling water main line on failure of three pumps, T= 50C.

4.1.2 Water hammer softening on pump failure In case of pump failures, the loads on the piping system can be reduced by increasing the flywheel effects of the pumps. The longer it takes the pump to slow down, the smaller the amplitudes of the pressure waves will be. Figures 10 and 11 show the pressure pattern on pump failure in a cooling water line o f a power station, downstream of the pump station in the three-pump operating mode where different flywheel effects of the pumps have been assumed. The pressure variations in Fig. 11 are only half as great as those in Fig. 10 for here the flywheel effects of the pumps are four times higher. Thus the loads have been halved. A procedure applied in special cases, mainly to heavy fluids, is to provide sufficient flow cross-section in a pump, even if the pump fails, as is the case of the sodium-cooled fast breeder in which the pump shaft presents this profile. In the ease o f pumps which are arranged in parallel it is usual to install a non-return damper in order to avoid return flows. This automatic closing element can also be the starting point of marked pressure waves. Such

Water hammer in piping systems

229

max. value: t,.88 min. value: ~.25

4.80
rv"
rn t:: O t13

4. ?0

t~n t-r-I 4.60

/
~,.SO

r'-

al

4.40

O. O0

10. O0

20. O0

30. O0

40. O0

SO. O0

time (see)

Fig. I 1.

Pressure/time analysis for the cooling water main line on failure of three pumps with higher flywheel effect, T = 50C.

dampers are normally equipped with adjustable damping mechanisms which are set so that they neither close too abruptly nor run the risk of opening and closing several times. 4.2 Passive measures Although advance measures are taken to 'soften' the water hammer load case, one cannot avoid absorbing any loads occurring as a result of water hammer by due design of the piping and its supports. The effect of the free pressure front is decisively influenced by the length and routing of the piping system (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the water hammer can also determine the materials to be selected and in addition it can necessitate the use o f certain types o f supports, not to mention the dimensioning of the piping so that it is sufficient for the water hammer.

230

R. Gillessen, H. Lange

4.2.1 Material selection Brittle materials should be used for piping exposed to water hammer only if the effects of the water hammer, for both the stresses due to inside pressure and for the loads attributable to the force action of the free pressure-loaded area plus the effects of normal loading, are kept below the yield point with an appropriate safety margin. This requirement normally results in the selection of ductile materials. However, these ductile materials may also be affected by the water hammer in a non-negligible way, especially when the material is called on to show plastic behaviour. A material responds to dynamic, abrupt stresses in such a way that the physical processes, starting with the expansion of the material, offer only slight resistance in the elastic area and occur at almost the same time as the load. Here a change in transverse contraction has already been measured. The physical processes of component plasticization are considerably more complex than in the elastic area and need a certain time to show a still ductile material behaviour. With increasing loading rate, however, the material ductility decreases progressively until in the extreme case it may show absolutely brittle behaviour. Therefore the ramp of a pressure wave is to be reduced to the 'flattest' possible measure for ductile material too. 4.2.2 Piping design Dimensioning has to be considered as an appropriate safety margin against the failure of the piping component, which must be associated with the type of water hammer. If a water hammer is anticipated to occur during operation and is unavoidable, its effects should be included in the operational design, which means that the component is designed against this pressure. If a water hammer is abnormal but unavoidable, the yield point of the material should be used as the limit value for the maximum pressure, in addition to the design pressure which serves as the design criterion. In the case of a water hammer which is an accident of a hypothetical nature (e.g. a pipe rupture with a closing non-return valve), it is normally permissible to exceed the yield point of the material and go to the limit of the ultimate collapse load. 4.2.3 Pipe installation and supports The dynamic loads resulting from water hammer require design measures which are normally in contrast with the stresses caused by the operating temperatures of a piping system. While the expansion due to temperature

Water hammer in piping systems

231

calls for the installation of a 'soft' system, the prerequisite for the absorption of water hammer loads is the 'hardest' possible installation, where possible excitation of the system is limited in order that resonance of the structure is avoided and the load is transmitted from the system to the s u p p o r t s - - a n d thereby to the building structure--at as many p o i n t s as possible. To a limited extent it is possible to reduce or dampen the pressure waves by due design of the piping. A typical example is the receiver which is frequently used in industrial piping. Internals with high resistance coefficients, such as strainers, damp the pressure amplitude so that the exciting pressure wave forces will soon die out. The same effect is achieved by branches where the pressure wave is normally attenuated by the bending process around the corner. As the effect of the free pressure front is greatest in long straight runs because the time-dependent longitudinal force can increase accordingly, 2 it is often advisable to absorb the axial forces in these runs in order to avoid large moments and deformations in the adjoining bent runs. Design-wise, this problem is mostly solved by welded lugs (Figs 12-14). In the case of particularly high loads or special quality requirements, fittings of the type also shown in Figs 12-14 are utilized. Guides also limit possible deflections of piping if they are arranged in cross sense to a pipe run in which the time of action of the longitudinal force is long. At piping exposed to heat their arrangement often causes design problems.

bend
connection

undercut F/**O.5 D I N 509

pipe connection

Fig. 12. An example of a design feature to reduce water hammer.

232

R. Gillessen, H. Lange
e1@8,~

iI

i~
~,~,,~, ~"~ ~

2 lugs turned clockwise 180 at the periphery clamL

~'~,

Fig. 13. An example of a design with welded lugs.

In such cases snubbers offer themselves as possible solutions for they act only in the event that a piping system is accelerated at their locations by the free pressure-loaded area beyond the limit value. These elements are often installed to protect component connections by absorbing the force of the water hammer but without impeding the operational movements of the piping. For example, Fig. 15 shows the arrangement of snubbers at the [Link] nuclear power plant.

Section A-B
tottom edge of [ucI
140

boftom edge of damp

I damp__

Fig. 14. Another example of a design with welded lugs.

Water hammer in piping systems

233

Fig. 15.

Arrangement of snubbers in a nuclear plant.

As there is the tendency to compensate thermal expansions in horizontal pipe runs from functional viewpoints, these horizontal routes are also most sensitive to dynamic water hammers. That can already be explained by the fact that the hangers oppose a resistance to the dead weight of movement in the vertical direction, although it is small in the case o f flexible hangers. If a water h a m m e r nevertheless occurs with flexible hangers, attention must be paid to the inertia o f the movable elements, which should not be too great in order to follow the movement to a sufficient extent, or to the movement of piping as such, which should be limited (e.g. by additional snubbers). Otherwise short-time overload can lead to elongation (possibly rupture or buckling) of the ties. Other elements (such as bearings or hangers) must of course be designed for water h a m m e r load within the limits given in section 3.2.2. For axially compensated piping care has to be taken in order that the operating pressure is absorbed together with the pressure wave by the bearing; even if these expansion joints are 'pressure relieved' in the case of a water h a m m e r the adjoining bearings have to transmit the whole load from the free pressure-loaded area.

234

R. Gillessen, H. Lange

5 SUMMARY The control of water hammer effects on piping systems and supports has briefly been described, following an outline of the production of water hammers and of their analysis. Basically, it is necessary to minimize water hammers by 'active measures', that is by influencing the fluid-dynamic conditions of'a system; only if these measures do not result in the effects becoming negligible is it necessary to take design measures of the type described in the text above. The outline does not claim to be complete and largely disregards quantitative considerations which require, in most cases, a plant-specific stress analysis in order to permit the optimization of the layout of supports. However, it becomes clear that the possible design measures to control water hammers aposteriori are quite limited, so that it is advisable to pay more attention to 'active measures'.