GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY

Disclaimer:
These notes cover some of the material that will be taught in lectures. They are not intended as a replacement for lecture attendance.

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Introduction to Oceanography
The ocean is in motion over an enormous range of scales, from microscale turbulence extending over a few millimeters to the great ocean gyres encompassing entire basins thousands of kilometers in extent. It is the goal of physical oceanography to systematically understand and describe these motions in as quantitative a fashion as possible. Physical oceanography is a holistic science encompassing many aspects of marine science. Physical oceanography basically describes how the ocean moves mixes and interacts with itself and with its surroundings including the atmosphere the seafloor, and the coast. It is not possible to effectively study one area of oceanography without an appreciation of the other areas. We can work together with marine biologists, marine geologists, coastal engineers, geophysicists, marine chemists. There are many reasons for developing our knowledge of the ocean. These include sources of food, chemicals, transport, climate change, weather, oil exploration, defence, leisure, erosion, energy production pollution, coastal impacts and ecology. In all these applications knowledge of the circulation of the oceans is needed. We aim to obtain a systematic and quantitative description of the character of the ocean waters and their movement. We aim to be able to predict their behaviour with some certainty. Physical Oceanography describes how the ocean Moves Mixes and Interacts with the atmosphere We study many phenomena over many scales, from global to mm: Global air-sea wind gyres - climate change Major ocean currents Mesoscale eddies and their role in mixing Local atmospheric phenomena Coastal Processes Waves/stratification Air sea interaction Physical oceanography involves understanding, explaining and predicting the state of the ocean. This requires intuition measurement and mathematics.

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Physical Oceanography is a young science.

It is only in the past 150 yrs that the study of the ocean evolved as a science. While many of the basic principles of physics and applied mathematics central to the study of ocean circulation have been known for centuries, it is only in the past fifty years that serious exploration of the deep ocean has begun. Even today, there are enormous areas of the Arctic, Antarctic, Indian and south Pacific Oceans that remain virtually unexplored.

Most oceanographers concentrate on one area, over one or a few scales of motion, for example Experimental Oceanography, where we measure quantities in the ocean (instrumentation) by going to sea. We test theoretical predictions by collecting data relating to a particular process occurring in the ocean. Numerical Modelling. We develop and use numerical models that solve the equations of motion. By changing a few parameters we can see what happens. Use both as a tool and for model development. Develop the mathematical and analytical theory of fluid dynamics.

Tools of Oceanography
For centuries ships have been the main platform for the conduct of oceanographic research. Large crew, large expense multi disciplinary and collaborative trips. Now we use Submersibles, video cameras, SCUBA, echo sounders platforms drifters dyes, instrument moorings. Satellites these days can measure wind velocity, surface currents, ice movement, wave activity, ocean surface temperature, plant productivity (chlorophyll), distribution of fish stocks, bottom bathymetry and monitor the progress of oil spills.

Basic Oceanic Facts

About 71% of the earths surface is covered by water The relative surface areas of the major oceans are: Pacific (46%) Atlantic (23%) Indian (20%) The remaining 11% is made up of seas etc. Average depth of the ocean is about 4000m Deepest part of the ocean is 11524m, the Mindanoa Trench off the east coast of the Philippines. Most continents are surrounded by a continental shelf or area of shallower water (~100m depth). Coastal and shelf seas have their own physics, which is quite different from that of the deep ocean.

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Properties of Sea Water

Salinity (S)
Sea water is 96.5% pure water, the remaining 3.5% consists of dissolved salts including chlorine, sodium, sulphate, magnesium, potassium and nitrate ions. Salinity is measured in practical salinity units (psu) which is the number of parts per thousand of salt or grams per kilogram. Salinity is affected by rain run-off from estuaries evaporation melting and freezing of ice. The average salinity range in the ocean is 35 psu, but can range from 8 psu (Baltic Sea) to 40 psu (Persian Gulf). Salinity is estimated by measuring the conductivity and temperature of the water.

Temperature (T)
The temperature range in the ocean varies from 0C at the poles to 28C at the equator. The temperature of the ocean is primarily affected by the heat flux at the air-sea interface. Diurnal heating has a major impact on the near-surface water.

Pressure (p)
In the ocean pressure increases with depth, for every metre, the pressure increases 1 dbar. A pressure gradient acts to move particles / fluid from areas of high pressure to low pressure.

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Density ()

Density depends on salinity, temperature and pressure. Lighter water Denser water Fresher Warmer Shallower More saline Colder Deeper

The density in the ocean ranges from 1021 1070 kg/m, the average density is 1025 kg/m Density increases with pressure, the density measured with respect to pressure is known as the in situ density. Another measure of density is the potential density, this is the density of the water mass at a reference pressure (usually the surface). Density is measured from the salinity, temperature and pressure using the equation of state.

Other properties
Dissolved oxygen tells us when water was last in contact with the atmosphere. Dissolved phosphate, silicate, nitrate and nitrites are important for biological activity. Usually phosphates, silicates and nitrates are away from the euphotic zone (the near surface layer that receives sunlight) since they are consumed by phytoplankton during photosynthesis. Below the surface the concentrations of these components increases. Radioactive elements such as Tritium were introduced to the atmosphere through thermonuclear testing in the 1950s (Michel, 1950). CFCs can help determine the age of a water mass.

Dynamical measurements
Distance 1 nautical mile (nmile) = 1 minute of latitude = 1.852 km 1 fathom = 6 feet = 1.8288 m Velocity (speed and direction) 1 knot = 1 nmile/hr = 0.51 m/s Transport 1 Sverdrup (Sv) = 106 m3/s

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Structure of the water column

The vertical structure of the water column in the ocean is determined by: the balance between incoming and outgoing radiation evaporation (tending to increase S) precipitation (tending to decrease S) input of mechanical mixing energy by breaking waves formation and melting of sea-ice motion of water masses horizontally.

The Surface Mixed Layer

The surface layer of the ocean tends to be well mixed. This means that temperature, salinity and density are fairly uniform throughout the layer. The depth of this layer tends to be around 100m, but it depends on the combined effects of wind, heat flux and stratification. Shallow mixed layer Deep mixed layer Still conditions Surface heating (summer) Increased stratification Stronger winds Surface cooling (winter) Decreased stratification

Beneath the surface mixed layer is a region where density increases rapidly (the pycnocline). This usually coincides with a sudden change in temperature (the thermocline). This region is very important biologically as it tends to be the most productive region in the vertical ocean.

Typical mean profiles in the open ocean of temperature and salinity

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Density Profiles

For a water column to be stable, density must increase with depth. In the ocean, density usually increases with depth. If it does not, the water column becomes unstable and will overturn. Here is a mid latitude profile of density.
Density Profile
0 20 40 60

Depth (m)

80 100 120 140 160 180 200 26 26.5 27 27.5 28 28.5 29

Density, t

Temperature-Salinity diagrams
Temperature-Salinity or T-S diagrams are useful for: Water mass identification Validating data Roughly estimating density

An alternative way to present profiles is in the form of a Temperature-Salinity (T-S) diagram.

TS Diagram 515oN, 3545oW
30

25
23

24
20
25

100m

Temperature C

27

15

26

250m
10

28

500m
5

27

1000m 4000m

29

0 34

34.5

35

35.5

36

36.5

37

37.5

Salinity (psu)

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Ocean Dynamics
Primary forces are forces that cause motion. Some examples of primary forces are: gravity (pressure forces due to weight) atmospheric pressure wind seismic forces (e.g. earthquakes) Secondary forces respond to movement Coriolis force due to the rotation of the earth Friction between particles (viscosity) or between water and the ocean floor.

Newtons Laws of Motion

An object will continue to move in a straight line at constant speed unless acted on by a NET force. The change in velocity of an object is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of object.

The Coriolis force

One of the most important forces to consider when looking at large scale flows is the Coriolis force. This force occurs due to the rotation of the earth. It does not cause movement but acts in response to movement. The Coriolis force is quantified by Coriolis force = v where is the Coriolis parameter and v is the velocity, = 2 sin where is the angular velocity of the earth = 2/(24x60x60) = 7.3x10-5 rad/s and is the latitude. (In the southern hemisphere is negative). The Coriolis force deflects motion to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. At the equator the Coriolis force is zero.

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Pressure forces

A pressure gradient force occurs when there is a horizontal difference in pressure. The pressure gradient force goes from high (H) pressure to low (L) pressure.

Geostrophic flow
For many oceanographic applications, it is valid to calculate currents by assuming that the pressure gradient and Coriolis force are in balance. The geostrophic current which results from this balance is perpendicular to the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force.

Barotropic and baroclinic currents

Barotropic currents are currents that move the whole water column. These currents can be induced by horizontal changes in elevation, which produce a pressure gradient throughout the whole water column. A baroclinic current is one that varies over depth. This can be induced by a horizontal density gradient. This effect is known as the thermal wind balance.

GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Ekman Dynamics in the Southern Hemisphere1

The presence of the Coriolis force means that a surface water mass acted upon by a wind stress will not move in the same direction as the wind. As soon as the water mass is in motion, the Coriolis force comes into play and this has the effect of moving water masses to the left of the wind direction in the southern hemisphere. In fact, for deep water, it can be shown that the surface waters move at an angle of 45 to left of the wind direction and that the net volume transport (referred to as the Ekman transport) in the wind-effected upper layer is 90 to the left of the wind. If you consider the ocean to be made up of lots of horizontal slabs. When the wind blows on the ocean surface, the top slab is moved and deflected to the left. This slab pushes the underlying slab, which moves and is deflected to the left, and so on for underlying slabs. The result is known as an Ekman spiral.

(a) The Ekman spiral pattern due to a wind in the southern hemisphere. (b) The integrated Ekman transport is to the left in the southern hemsphere.

For the Ekman effect in the northern hemisphere, because Coriolis force acts to the right instead of the left, Ekman transport works to the right instead of left.

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Upwelling and downwelling

Upwelling and downwelling is the result of Ekman dynamics acting on an alongshore wind. For example, along the east coast of Australia, if there is a northerly wind, ie. a wind from the north. Then the Ekman transport to the left of the wind would result in surface waters being transported off shore. This would remove water from the coast. This water needs to be replaced, so water is sucked up from below. This is known as coastal upwelling. This process is very important in the nutrient enrichment of coastal waters, as the deep cold waters are rich in nutrients. Bringing the nutrient rich waters to the euphotic zone promotes biological activity.

Upwelling off the coast of Sydney

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Downwelling off the coast of Sydney

Convergence and divergence

A curl in the wind means that the wind profile changes in the horizontal direction. This can lead to convergence (or piling up) of water which results in downwelling, or divergence (water being sucked away, resulting in a depression) which causes upwelling.

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Large Scale Ocean Circulation

Many of the circulations we will discuss have maintained their flow pattern and water mass characteristics for hundreds of years, indicating that they are not the result of temporary changes in the forces responsible for driving these flows, but rather the result of climatic conditions which persist indefinitely. The mechanisms primarily responsible for driving long-term, large-scale oceanic flows are derivatives of what we know as climate. In fact, it is energy from the sun's radiation that is ultimately responsible for driving these circulations.

Thermohaline Circulation
Thermohaline circulation can be described as the vertical and subsequently horizontal displacement of water masses caused by density increases in the upper layers of the ocean. These density increases can produced either by direct cooling of the ocean surface, evaporation or in polar regions, by the formation of sea ice which induces the ejection of salt, thereby increasing the density of the surrounding waters. Stommel2 proposed a model of thermohaline circulation that is now generally accepted. According to Stommel, the majority of the cooling-induced sinking takes place at the northern and southern extremities of the Atlantic Ocean. The water that is cooled here, sinks and subsequently flows into the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, where it then upwells toward the surface.

Wind Forcing
It is the combination of surface wind forcing, Coriolis force and the physical constraints provided by the continents that are responsible for the formation of the large-scale ocean gyres that we observe. The wind exerts a frictional force on the surface that causes an Ekman transport perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The Ekman transport results in the convergence of water in the major ocean basins creating gyres. These gyres are large, circular circulation patterns, that progress in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. The direction of these circulations is a result of the fact that the Coriolis force acts to the right of the current direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The winds most responsible for driving the large ocean gyres in both hemispheres are the tropical northeast and southeast trade winds. In simple terms, the trade winds drive water to the east in the equatorial regions. The Coriolis force then bends the currents poleward and along the western boundaries, with westerlies at mid latitudes driving the circulation to the east. The Coriolis force then acts to bring these easterly currents equatorward along eastern boundaries to complete the gyre.

Stommel, H M (1958), The abyssal circulation, Deep Sea Research, 5, pp80-82

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Pacific Ocean Circulation

The circulation of the Pacific Ocean is primarily wind driven. Winds blowing over the Pacific Ocean, induce a large scale anticlockwise oceanic circulation in the Pacific and a strong poleward flowing westward boundary current (the East Australia Current, or EAC) In equatorial waters the South East (SE) trade winds drive surface waters westward from South America toward the Coral Sea. Surface heating occurs thus equatorial waters on the western side of the Pacific are generally much warmer than those in the east. This difference in Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) dictates a heating of the overlying atmosphere, and atmospheric pressure systems are formed. The warmer SST (and atmosphere) in the western Pacific creates an atmospheric Low-pressure system, (convergence at low levels and significant rainfall). The Eastern Pacific has colder surface waters, colder atmospheric temperatures and an atmospheric High-pressure system, characterised by finer weather and divergence at lower atmospheric levels. The atmospheric pressure gradient from eastern Pacific (High) to western Pacific (Low) drives the SE trade winds. Thus we have a coupled atmosphere-ocean circulation. In addition the driving of surface waters to the west off the Peruvian coast causes an upwelling of colder, nutrient rich waters from below. The colder upwelled waters help maintain colder SSTs in the east, while the nutrients encourage plankton production, which in turn feeds the Peruvian anchovy fishery. Large Scale Features of the upper water circulation in the Pacific: North Equatorial Current (NEC) South Equatorial Current (SEC) Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC) Kuroshio (K) North Pacific Current (NPC) East Australia Current (EAC) Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) Peru Current(PC)

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El-Nio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

ENSO is the term given to a large scale oscillation of air pressure observed in the tropics around the globe and particularly clearly over the tropical Pacific Ocean. The term El Nio refers to the extensive warming of the central and Eastern Pacific that leads to a major shift in weather patterns across the Pacific. In Australia (particularly eastern Australia), El Nio events are associated with an increased probability of drier conditions. Changes to the atmosphere and ocean circulation during El Nio events include: Warmer than normal ocean temperatures across the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Increased convection or cloudiness in the central tropical Pacific Ocean - the focus of convection migrates from the Australian/Indonesian region eastward towards the central tropical Pacific Ocean. Weaker than normal (easterly) trade winds. Reduced rainfall in the western Pacific (and particularly over the Australian inland, which can lead to drought). Enhanced rainfall in the coastal towns of the eastern Pacific, (eg Peru, Central America) which, in arid country leads to floods and mudslides. A reduction in the rate of nutrient upwelling which substantially inhibits the anchovy production and reduces the anchovy catch of the Peruvian coast. (The ENSO has never been strong enough to create a strong upwelling zone in the western Pacific, although there are some identifiable effects on fisheries around Australia)

Low (negative) values of the SOI (Southern Oscillation Index). Monitoring these changes helps to detect an El Nio event and forecast its lifetime.

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

low pressure

sea surface

Thermocline

upwelling

sea surface

low pressure

Thermocline Western Pacific Eastern Pacific

The El-Nio/Southern Oscillation phenomenon. Under normal conditions (top) the easterly winds drive the equatorial currents to the west. During an ENSO event (bottom) the atmospheric pressure systems move east, modifying the trade winds and surface circulation so as to inhibit upwelling in the eastern Pacific. Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) The SOI is calculated from the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the mean sea level pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin. Sustained negative values of the SOI often indicate El Nio episodes. Positive values are often associated with stronger pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures to the north of Australia, popularly known as a la Nia episode.

The SOI

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Waves and Tides

The dynamics of all open ocean and coastal regions are effected to some degree by the influence of waves and tides. Some common terminology used when referring to waves is outlined below. Wave height (H): This is the vertical distance from wave crest to adjacent trough Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the surface above the mean water level (A=H/2) Wavelength (): The horizontal distance from one crest to the next (or one trough to the next) Period (T): The time taken for two successive crests (or troughs) to pass a fixed point Wavespeed (C): The speed at which a wave propagates in the horizontal. C=/T Local water depth (h): The depth from the ocean bottom to the mean surface water level

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Types of Waves

The types of waves observed in the ocean are numerous, with the most important and commonly occurring of these, together with their causes, periods and wavelengths described below. 1. Surface Waves: Swell, wind waves and ripples: These waves are created by the frictional stress imparted on the ocean surface by the action of the wind. Period T (secs) 0 - 0.2 0.2 - 9 9 15 15 - 30 30 sec - hours day, day Wavelength L Centimetres Up to about 130m hundreds of metres many hundreds of metres thousands of km thousands of km Name Ripples wind waves Swell long swell Tsunamis Tides

2. Tides: Tides are produced by the action of the fluctuating gravitational forces of the sun and moon on the oceans. Tidal periods are usually either 12hrs (semi-diurnal) or 24hrs (diurnal), with tidal wavelengths being of the order of thousands of kilometres. 3. Internal waves: Caused when the interface between two water layers of different densities is disturbed. This causes water masses to oscillate about the interface and an internal wave develops. Internal waves can be produced when vertical density variation (stratification) is present. Internal waves are commonly found in the thermocline for oceanic waters and in the halocline for coastal waters. Since, for water masses near the coast, density differences result primarily from differences in salinity, while in oceanic waters, density differences are due mainly to differences in temperature. Internal waves can have amplitudes of 50-60m (much larger than surface waves), but propagate more slowly than surface waves. Internal waves are not visible to the naked eye but upper layer disturbances resulting from a propagating internal wave may manifest themselves as irregular bands of ripples on the sea surface separated by patches of smooth water. 4. Tsunamis: These waves are generated by seismic disturbances of the sea floor or shore region and have periods in the range 30s-hours and wavelengths up to thousands of kilometres. The disturbances responsible for tsunamis include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater earth slides. They are often (incorrectly) referred to as tidal waves.

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Shallow and Deep water waves

The phase speed of any wave can be calculated from observations as C = / T if these are known, however for some restricted cases we can make approximations. Ie we can Classify waves as either shallow or deep, water waves. However it is important to note that this has nothing to do with absolute water depth, but is determined by the ratio of water depth to wavelength. Wave speed C is given as follows,
C= 2h g tanh 2 g 2
gh

If h/ >1/2 we have deep water waves C =

If h/ < 1/20 we have shallow water waves C =

(a) Deep Water Waves. For Deep water waves particle paths are circles.

(b) Shallow Water Waves. For Shallow water waves particle paths are circles.

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Shallow Water Waves (Long Waves) Shallow water waves are non dispersive. Their wave speed is independent of their period. It depends only on the depth of the water. Waves travel fastest in deeper water and will slow down on entering shallower water. Deep Water Waves (Short waves) Speed of travel is independent of depth but dependent upon wavelength i.e. Longer waves travel faster and groundswell precedes storms. Generally produced by wind. Sea includes all waves generated by the local winds while swell refers to waves generated by distant wind fields (hurricanes, tropical cyclones, typhoons, etc.).

Refraction of Water Waves

Waves are generated at a certain period and tend to preserve this period for the term of their existence. As waves approach shallow water, their speed decreases, (since for shallow water waves speed is proportional to the square root of depth) and hence their wavelength decreases. (Recall =C/T). Thus waves approaching a shoaling beach at an angle to the shore will experience refraction and the direction of propagation of the waves will be 'bent' to become more parallel to the shore. This is because the end of the wave nearer the shore slows down earlier than the end farthest from the shore resulting in the wave 'swinging around' toward the shore. This phenomenon is also common round headlands and along sections of coastline that are not straight.

Wave Breaking
At the beach you see waves periodically breaking on the sand. Closer inspection will reveal that, as the wave approaches the shore, it's height increases until it is too steep to continue to propagate as a wave. At this point, the wave breaks. This phenomenon can be explained quite simply using the principal of conservation of energy. We can represent the total energy (potential and kinetic) of a travelling wave as: 1 E = gA 2 2 Now, (neglecting frictional and breaking effects), the flux of energy towards the shore is conserved for any particular wave. The energy flux is calculated simply as: =cE, where c is the phase speed of the wave. Consider a long wave propagating toward the shore. As the bottom depth decreases, the speed (and hence ) decrease. However the energy flux must remain constant. Hence, to compensate for the loss of speed, the amplitude increases. ie the wave steepens. We normally use H/ as a measure for the steepness of a wave. (Here H is the wave height. Recall H=2A). Observations have shown that beach waves will break whenever H/ reaches 1/12 or when H/h reaches 0.8, (whichever occurs first).

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Tides

Tide is the name we give to the periodic rise and fall of the sea level near the coast. Tides have an average period of 12.4 hours and in some places, 24.8 hours. The rise and fall of the sea level is the most obvious feature to the casual observer. However it is really the change in direction of the tidal currents from toward the coast (convergence) to away from the coast (divergence) that produces the rise and fall of the sea level respectively. The tide producing forces arise as a consequence of the gravitational attraction between the earth/moon and earth/sun systems. Since the earth, moon and sun are constantly revolving relative to each other, the magnitude of the tide producing forces varies in time. It turns out that this variation is periodic and that these forces are at their strongest when the sun and moon are either on the same side as the earth or on opposite sides. Tidal variations at this time are largest and these tides are known as Spring Tides. When the sun and moon are nearest to 90 to each other, the tide producing forces are at their minimum and the resultant tidal variations are small. These tides are referred to as Neap Tides. Successive spring or neap tides occur approximately every 15 days. The tide producing forces due to the moon are approximately twice as large as those due to the sun, due to its much closer proximity to the earth. The joint influence of the sun and moon provide a variety of Principal Harmonic Constituents, the most important of which are
Name Principal Lunar Period (hours) 12.42 Relative Magnitude 1.00

Designation M2

S2 K1 O1

Principal Solar Luni-solar diurnal Principal lunar diurnal

12.00 23.93 25.82

0.466 0.584 0.415

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Physical Oceanography of Australias Coastal Waters

Three major ocean currents influence Australias coastal waters: The East Australian Current The Leeuwin Current The Indonesian throughflow

The strength and seasonality and southward extension of these 3 currents are highly variable and their flow influences coastal conditions and larval distribution. Their flow varies from 14 knots depending on the season. Other influencing currents include the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the South Java current and the South Equatorial Current Ocean eddies spawned by strong ocean currents circulate both clockwise and anticlockwise and may reach speeds of up to 4knots.

Schematic diagram of the surface ocean currents around Australia. (George Cresswell CSIRO)

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT East Australia Current

The East Australia Current (EAC) is the southward flowing western boundary current of the south Pacific wind driven Gyre. Flows poleward down the Australian east coast transporting warm water from the Coral Sea into the cooler Tasman Sea waters. The EAC is a moderately strong current with varying in strength, with speeds of up to 2ms-1 in the core of the current. Highly Baroclinic (variable over depth) Extends down to 2000m with a surface or near surface maximum. Distinct seasonal flow, maximum in summer with transports of up to 27Sv. EAC flows adjacent to the shelf break until around the middle of the New South Wales coast (~30 32oS) where it separates. Tasman Front forms between warm coral sea water and cold Tasman Sea water. Sometimes it extends across the Tasman Sea to NZ. After separation, the EAC begins to meander and forms complex eddy fields. The EAC eddy field has been linked to the nutrient enrichment of coastal waters. The main effect of the EAC is to bring warm Coral Sea water down the east Australian coast. This acts as a modifier on the local climate. The EAC also may be a driving force for upwelling events.

Wind Driven Processes

The wind plays an important role in the oceanography of the East Australian coast. One of the most important effects is as a driving mechanism for upwelling / downwelling events. The predominant wind is South East however, the wind is highly seasonal and in summer sea breeze (North East) winds are common. These sea breezes can lead to upwelling events if their duration is long enough. The wind also acts to generate waves and swell.

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Tides

The tides on the East Australian coast are perhaps less important than in some other parts of the world. The tides are semi-diurnal and have a range of up to 2m. Because the shelf is quite narrow, tidal currents on open coastlines are relatively mild. However in bays, harbours and estuaries the tidal currents can become important. Another place the tides are very important are in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. Here the water is shallow and so the tidal currents have significant effect on the flow in the region. The tidal ranges are also much greater, up to ~4m in some places.

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GENB5001 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Waves

Waves are important in any part of the ocean and particularly in the coastal zone. They are an important mechanism for mixing and transfer of energy in the upper part of the water column. In the coastal zone they are important in driving coastal processes such as sediment transport. On the East Australian coast we have a moderately high energy wave climate with an average annual wave height of ~ 1.5m. Waves are predominantly from the SE with high seasonal variability. In summer NE sea breezes can drive smaller NE swells, Tropical cyclones can also deliver large NNE swells onto the coast. Coastally Trapped Waves (CTWs) are long period (5-10days) waves trapped to the coast by the topography. They are generated by winds in Bass Straight and propagate northward along the East coast. They are an important mechanism for upwelling, and effect the variability of coastal currents.

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How Fisheries and Oceanography Interact

The constantly changing conditions of the ocean influence the environment of all coastal and deep ocean fisheries. The breeding abundance and distribution of all species in the marine food chain are affected by climatic variations, stronger or weaker ocean currents, rising or falling ocean temperatures, oceanic upwelling and varying levels of salinity and nutrient concentration. In turn this affects management and economics of Australias fisheries and coastal aquaculture. Examples of oceanography affecting fish stocks: A sudden drop in sea temperature in mid 1997 slashed catches of golden snapper in the Timor Region. In January 1999 higher than normal water temperatures in southern Tasmania were blamed for fish deaths in coastal Atlantic salmon farms. In SE Australia, gemfish catches halved in 1997, which could have been linked to the unusual behaviour of the EAC. During a weakening of the 1997 El Nino, the barren ocean erupted biologically within days of the onset of La Nina, and the return of cold nutrient rich waters to the eastern Pacific region. The distribution of rock lobster larvae is linked to the strength of the Leeuwin Current. Rainfalls across northern Australia influence the success of the northern prawn harvest.

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