Lecture 3: Introduction to networking concepts

Computer networking connects devices (nodes) like computers and servers using
cables or wireless signals to share resources and exchange data. Key components
include routers (direct traffic between networks), switches (connect devices within
a network), and protocols (rules for data transmission, e.g., TCP/IP). Networks are
categorized by geography, such as LANs (local) or WANs (wide area).

Fundamental Networking Concepts

 Nodes and Links: Nodes are devices (computers, routers, servers) connected by links
(cables, fiber optics, Wi-Fi).
 Network Topologies: The physical or logical arrangement of devices, such as star,
ring, bus, or mesh.
 Data Packets: Data sent over a network is broken into smaller packets for efficient
transmission and reassembled at the destination.
 IP Addressing: A unique identifier (e.g., IPv4 or IPv6) assigned to every device on a
network, allowing them to be located.
 Bandwidth & Latency: Bandwidth is the maximum data transfer rate, while latency
refers to the delay in transmission.

Essential Networking Hardware

 Routers: Connect different networks together (e.g., connecting a home network to the
Internet) and manage traffic flow.
 Switches: Connect devices within the same network to share information.
 Wireless Access Points (WAP): Allow devices to connect to a network using Wi-Fi
rather than cables.
 Modems: Convert data from a service provider (ISP) into a digital signal that a router
can interpret.
Common Protocols

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) : The fundamental set of

rules that enables communication over the internet.
 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for web browsing.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails.
Network Types

 PAN (Personal Area Network): Very small, close-range network (e.g., Bluetooth
connecting a phone and headset).
 LAN (Local Area Network): Connects devices in a small area, like a home or office.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a large geographical area, such as the internet
itself.
Key Concepts in Security

 Firewall: A security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined rules.
 VPN (Virtual Private Network): Creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less
secure network, such as the internet.

Computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate
with each other to exchange data and resources. It enables efficient
communication and supports services like email, file sharing, and internet
access.
 Nodes are physical devices such as computers, mobiles, or printers.
 Routers and switches control the flow of information.
 Transmission media carry data from one device to another.
 Wired media includes Ethernet and optical fiber cables.
Working
Computer network operates by enabling devices to communicate and
exchange data using a shared communication system. Each device in the
network follows predefined rules to ensure that data is transmitted accurately,
efficiently, and securely.
 A network consists of nodes such as computers, servers, routers, and
switches that send or receive data.
 These nodes are connected through links, which may be wired (cables,
optical fiber) or wireless (Wi-Fi, radio signals).
 When data is sent, it is broken into small packets and transmitted across
the network.
 Protocols define how data packets are formatted, transmitted, received,
and acknowledged.
 Each device is identified by a unique IP address, which ensures data
reaches the correct destination.
 Network devices like switches and routers forward data packets along the
best available path.
 Security mechanisms, such as firewalls, monitor traffic and allow or block
data based on security rules.


Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:
 Client-Server Architecture: Represents a type of computer network
architecture in which nodes function as servers or clients, where the server
manages client behavior, known as Client-Server Architecture.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Operates without any central server, allowing
each device to act as either a client or a server, known as P2P (Peer-to-
Peer) Architecture.


Network Devices
These are physical devices that connect computers, printers and other
electronic equipment to a network and enable data sharing, transferring and
managing.

1. Router

Functions as a networking device that connects multiple networks and directs

data between them.
 Connects local networks to the internet
 Determines the best path for data packets
 Uses IP addresses to forward data correctly
2. Switch

Connects devices within the same network and manages internal data
communication.
 Connects computers, printers, and servers
 Sends data only to the intended device
 Improves network efficiency and performance

3. Hub

Acts as a basic device that connects multiple devices within a network.

 Broadcasts data to all connected devices
 Does not filter or manage traffic
 Less secure and less efficient than a switch

4. Bridge

Connects two network segments and filters traffic between them.

 Reduces unnecessary data transmission
 Improves network performance
 Works using MAC addresses

5. Gateway

Connects two different networks that use different protocols.

 Translates data between different systems
 Enables communication between dissimilar networks
 Commonly used to connect private networks to external networks

6. Access Point (AP)

Provides wireless connectivity to devices in a network.

 Extends a wired network into Wi-Fi
 Allows mobile devices to connect wirelessly
 Improves network coverage area
7. Modem

Converts digital data into signals suitable for transmission and vice versa.
 Connects a home or office network to the ISP
 Converts digital signals to analog and back
 Enables internet access

8. Firewall

Security device that monitors and controls network traffic.

 Blocks unauthorized access
 Filters incoming and outgoing data
 Protects networks from cyber threats
Goals and Uses
 Resource Sharing: Allow multiple users to share hardware, software, and
data resources efficiently.
 Internet and Cloud Access: Enable access to the Internet, online
services, and cloud-based applications.
 Cost Efficiency: Reduce operational and infrastructure costs through
shared resources and centralized systems.
 Reliability and Availability: Improve system reliability using backup paths
and fault-tolerant mechanisms.
 Scalability and Growth: Support easy expansion by adding new devices
and services as demand increases.
 Security and Control: Protect data and network resources using
authentication, access control, and monitoring.
 Lecture 4

Internet structure and common protocols

The internet is a global network of interconnected autonomous systems (AS) that

route data packets using protocols like BGP, TCP/IP, and DNS. It operates on a
hierarchical structure using routers/switches to transmit data, guided by protocols
at the Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Access layers. Key protocols
include HTTP/HTTPS (browsing), TCP/UDP (transmission), IP (routing), and
SMTP (email).

Core Internet Structure (TCP/IP Model)

The internet uses a four-layer model to transfer data, where each layer
adds headers (encapsulation) to packets:
 Application Layer: Where user applications interact (HTTP/HTTPS, DNS,
SMTP, FTP).
 Transport Layer: Ensures reliable (TCP) or fast/connectionless (UDP)
data delivery.
 Internet Layer: Handles logical addressing and routing across networks
using IP (Internet Protocol).
 Network Access Layer: Manages physical hardware connections, such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi.

Common Network Protocols

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked

delivery of packets.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Responsible for addressing and routing packets across network
boundaries.
 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): Defines how web browsers and
servers communicate, with HTTPS providing encryption.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
[Link]) into numerical IP addresses.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A fast, connectionless protocol used for real-time
applications like video streaming and gaming.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses
to devices on a network.
 SMTP/IMAP/POP3 (Email Protocols): Protocols for sending (SMTP) and
receiving/managing (IMAP, POP3) email.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between a client and server.
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): Manages how packets are routed across the
internet's autonomous systems.
Key Data Transmission Concepts

 Packet Switching: Data is broken into small, independently routed packets.

 IP Addresses: Unique identifiers for devices.
 Routing: Routers use routing tables to determine the best path for data.

Internet relies on various protocols to enable communication between

devices. These protocols define how data is packaged, addressed,
transmitted, and received across networks. Some commonly used protocols
are:

1. TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol) is a standard
communication protocol suite that defines how data is transmitted over the
Internet using packet switching. It provides a framework that enables reliable
communication between devices across different networks.
 IP provides unique IP addresses to identify devices on a network.
 TCP breaks data into packets before transmission.
 Ensures reliable delivery of data packets.
 Maintains correct sequencing and reassembly of packets at the
destination.
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, ensuring a stable communication
session.
 Forms the backbone of Internet communication.

2. SMTP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is an application-layer protocol used for
sending and routing outgoing emails over a network. It is responsible for
transferring email messages from the sender’s mail server to the receiver’s
mail server in a reliable manner.
 Used only for sending emails, not for receiving them.
 Transfers emails from the sender’s mail server to the receiver’s mail
server.
 Uses email headers to identify the sender and recipients.
 Removes the email from the outgoing queue after successful delivery.
 Supports text, images, and multimedia content through MIME extensions.
3. PPP
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a data link layer protocol used to establish a
direct connection between two network devices. It provides a standardized
method for transmitting data over point-to-point links and is widely used in
network communications.
 Used for direct device-to-device communication.
 Supports authentication between devices (such as PAP and CHAP).
 Commonly used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for user connections.
 Can be used to connect routers directly.
 Supports multiple network layer protocols, including IP.

4. FTP
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a client–server protocol used to transfer files
between systems over a network. It enables users to upload and download
files reliably using a standardized method of communication.
 Allows uploading and downloading of files between client and server.
 Requires authentication using a username and password.
 Uses TCP to ensure reliable data transfer.
 Commonly used for website management and file sharing.
 Not secure by default, unless encryption mechanisms are used.

5. SFTP
SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) is a secure file transfer protocol that
operates over SSH (Secure Shell). It encrypts both commands and data
during transmission, ensuring secure file transfer and remote file management
over a network.
 Uses SSH to provide secure communication.
 Encrypts data and commands during transmission.
 Provides secure remote file access and management.
 Acts as a safer alternative to FTP.
 Commonly used by system administrators for secure file transfers.

6. HTTP
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is an application-layer protocol used to
transfer hypertext documents over the World Wide Web. It defines how web
browsers (clients) and web servers communicate to request and deliver web
content.
 Used for web page communication.
 Works on a client–server model.
 Transfers text, images, audio, video, and other multimedia content.
 It is a stateless protocol, meaning it does not retain session information.
 Not secure by default, unless used with HTTPS.
7. HTTPS
HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) is the secure version of HTTP
that uses SSL/TLS encryption to protect data exchanged between a web
browser and a web server. It ensures confidentiality, integrity, and
authentication during online communication.
 Encrypts sensitive data during transmission.
 Used for secure websites.
 Protects credit card details, passwords, and OTPs.
 Displays a padlock icon in web browsers.
 Essential for secure online transactions and data privacy.

8. TELNET
TELNET (Terminal Network) is a remote login protocol that allows users to
access and control a remote computer over a network. It enables users to
execute commands on a remote system as if they were physically present at
that machine.
 Works on a client–server model.
 Enables command execution on remote systems.
 Transmits data in plain text, without encryption.
 Considered not secure due to lack of data protection.
 Mostly replaced by SSH because of security concerns

9. POP3
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is an email protocol used to retrieve emails
from a mail server to a local device. It allows users to download messages
from the server so they can be accessed offline.
 Downloads emails to the local system.
 Emails are usually deleted from the server after download.
 Operates as a one-way client-server protocol.
 Uses port 110 (unencrypted) and port 995 (secure POP3 over SSL/TLS).
 Suitable for single-device email access.

10. IPv4
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol
used to uniquely identify devices on a network using 32-bit IP addresses. It
has been the foundation of traditional Internet addressing and routing since
the early days of the Internet.
 Uses 32-bit addresses, allowing approximately 4.3 billion unique
addresses.
 Represents addresses in dotted decimal notation (e.g., [Link]).
 Each address contains network and host components.
 Widely used, but facing the problem of address exhaustion.
 Forms the base of traditional Internet addressing and routing.
11. IPv6
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the latest version of the Internet Protocol
designed to overcome the limitations of IPv4, especially address exhaustion. It
uses a much larger addressing scheme and provides improved features for
modern networking requirements.
 Uses 128-bit addressing, providing a huge number of unique IP addresses.
 Eliminates the problem of IP address exhaustion.
 Improves security with built-in support for IPsec.
 Provides better support for mobile devices and modern networks.
 Being gradually adopted to replace IPv4.

12. ICMP
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network-layer protocol used to
send error messages and operational information about network conditions. It
is mainly used by network devices such as routers to report problems
encountered while forwarding IP packets and to help diagnose network
connectivity issues.
 Used to report errors and exceptional conditions in IP packet delivery.
 ICMP messages are typically generated by routers and network devices.
 Common ICMP message types include Echo Request and Echo Reply
(used by ping), Destination Unreachable, Time Exceeded, and Redirect
messages.
 Helps test the reachability of a host on a network.
 Used to measure round-trip time (RTT) between source and destination.
 Plays an important role in network troubleshooting and diagnostics.
 Not a secure protocol and can be exploited in certain attacks, such as
DDoS amplification attacks.
13. UDP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless transport-layer protocol
that provides fast data transmission without guaranteeing reliable delivery. It is
designed for applications where speed and low latency are more important
than accuracy.
 No connection setup is required before data transmission.
 Does not provide error correction or flow control.
 Faster than TCP due to low overhead.
 Commonly used in streaming, online gaming, and VoIP applications.
 Suitable for scenarios where speed matters more than accuracy.
14. IMAP
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is an email protocol that allows
users to access, read, and manage emails directly on the mail server. Unlike
POP3, it keeps emails stored on the server, making them accessible from
multiple devices.
 Emails remain stored on the server.
 Supports access from multiple devices.
 Synchronizes emails and mailbox status across devices.
 More flexible than POP3 for modern email usage.
 Allows folder creation and organization of emails.

15. SSH
SSH (Secure Shell) is a secure network protocol used for remote login and
secure communication over an unsecured network. It provides encrypted
connections, ensuring confidentiality and integrity of data exchanged between
client and server.
 Encrypts data transmission to prevent eavesdropping.
 Uses public-key cryptography for authentication.
 Considered more secure than Telnet.
 Supports secure file transfer using SCP and SFTP.
 Widely used by system administrators for secure remote access and
management.

16. Gopher

Gopher is a file retrieval protocol used to search, access, and download files
from remote systems over a network. It was one of the earliest Internet
protocols designed to organize and retrieve information in a simple and
structured manner.
 Organizes files in a hierarchical, menu-based structure.
 Provides descriptions for files and directories.
 One of the earliest Internet protocols.
 Largely obsolete in modern networks.
 Mostly replaced by HTTP and FTP.

The OSI model is a 7-layer theoretical, conceptual framework used for understanding
and standardizing network communication. The TCP/IP model is a 4- or 5-layer
practical, protocol-oriented model that serves as the basis for the modern internet. OSI
provides a detailed, structured approach, while TCP/IP focuses on interoperability and specific
protocol implementation.
 Key Differences Between OSI and TCP/IP Models

 Layers: OSI has seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application), whereas TCP/IP combines these into four or five (Network
Access/Link, Internet, Transport, Application).
 Approach: OSI is considered a generic, protocol-independent model. TCP/IP is directly
tied to the specific protocols used in the internet (e.g., IP, TCP).
 Functionality: OSI separates hardware (Physical/Data Link) and session management
(Session/Presentation) into distinct layers. TCP/IP collapses these into a single Network
Access layer and includes session handling within the Application layer.
 Development: OSI was developed as a standardized model before the protocols were
created. In contrast, TCP/IP was developed by the US Department of Defense, with
protocols created first, followed by the model.
 Usage: OSI is primarily used to educate, understand, and troubleshoot network
systems. TCP/IP is used to implement actual network communications.
The Internet Protocol (IP) assigns a unique address to each device, enabling
communication over the internet.
 IPv4, the earlier version, uses 32-bit addresses, providing about 4.3 billion
unique addresses, which are now nearly exhausted due to the rapid growth
of the internet and IoT devices.
 IPv6, the newer version, uses 128-bit addresses, offering a vastly larger
address space to overcome IPv4 exhaustion and support future internet
expansion.

Drawbacks of IPv4

 Limited address space: The 32-bit IPv4 address space is insufficient for
the growing number of connected devices.
 Complex configuration: IPv4 relies on manual setup or DHCP, which can
lead to configuration errors.
 Inefficient routing: Variable and complex headers increase processing
overhead.
 Lack of built-in security: Security features are not inherent and require
additional mechanisms.
 Limited QoS support: Traffic prioritization is weak, affecting real-time
applications.
 Router-based fragmentation: Packet fragmentation by routers reduces
efficiency and may cause data loss.
 Broadcast traffic overhead: Broadcast communication increases
unnecessary network traffic and degrades performance.

Benefits of IPv6 over IPv4

The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here are
some of the mentioned benefits:
 Larger Address Space: IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses (vs. 32-bit in IPv4),
allowing many more devices to connect.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has built-in features like data authentication and
encryption, making connections safer..
 Simpler Header: IPv6 has a streamlined header, improving speed and
reducing processing cost.
 Better QoS Support: IPv6 provides stronger Quality of Service, improving
video, audio, and website performance.
 Mobile-Friendly: IPv6 offers better, faster, and more secure support for
mobile connections.
Switching From IPv4 to IPv6 : To switch from IPv4 to IPv6, there are several
strategies:
 Dual Stacking : Devices can use both IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time.
This way, they can talk to networks and devices using either version.
 Tunneling : This method allows IPv6 users to send data through an IPv4
network to reach other IPv6 users. Think of it as creating a "tunnel" for IPv6
traffic through the older IPv4 system.
 Network Address Translation (NAT) : NAT helps devices using different
versions of IP addresses (IPv4 and IPv6) to communicate with each other
by translating the addresses so they understand each other.
 Subnetting divides a large network into smaller, manageable subnets to improve security and efficiency,
while supernetting (route summarization) combines smaller networks into a larger one to simplify
routing tables. Subnetting borrows bits from the host portion (right), whereas supernetting
borrows bits from the network portion (left).

Subnetting

 Purpose: Breaks one network into multiple smaller subnetworks.

 Goal: Reduces address depletion, enhances security, and manages broadcast
domains.
 Method: Moves subnet mask bits to the right (borrows from host).
 Implementation: Uses Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM).
 Outcome: Increases the number of networks, decreases hosts per network.
 Supernetting

 Purpose: Combines multiple smaller networks into one large network.

 Goal: Simplifies routing tables, reduces router memory usage, and improves efficiency.
 Method: Moves subnet mask bits to the left (borrows from network).
 Implementation: Uses Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).
 Outcome: Decreases the number of networks, increases hosts per network.