Lecture 1 Computer Network : 3-0-2 Credit 4 January 2026What Do We Mean by a Network? + Anetwork is a system that connects devices so they can communicate with each other. Computers, mobile phones, servers... connected using wires or wireless signals Allows devices to easily send and receive data while sharing resources like files, Internet connectivity, and printers.Computer Network Computer Networks focus on connection and communication between computing devices. They explain how computers and digital systems exchange information with each other. % Every modern digital service—internet, mobile apps, cloud, and Al—relies on networks. This course provides the fundamental building blocks of today's digitally interconnected and intelligent ecosystem.From Isolated Machines to Connected World ° * ° * ° Early computers worked independently Sharing data and resources was difficult Networks connected computers into powerful systems The Internet transformed communication globally Today's world runs on always-connected systemsBeauty of Computer Networks @ Computer Networks combine logic, design, and real-world constraints Focuses on efficiency, reliability, and scalability Deals with real problems like delay, congestion, and failures Principles remain relevant despite technology changes Asubject where engineering meets simplicityUNIT 4- INTRODUCTION Overview of Computer Networks and Data Communication, Computer Networking Protocols and Standards, Types of Computer Networks, Network Topology, Protocol Hierarchies and Design Issues, Interfaces and Services, Networking Devices, OSI and TCP/IP Reference ModelsPHYSICAL LAYER Physical Layer Design Issues, Data Transmission Techniques, Multiplexing, Transmission Media, Asynchronous Communication, Wireless Transmission, ISDN, ATM, Cellular Radio, Switching Techniques and Issues.LOGICAL LINK CONTROL LAYER LLC Design Issues, Framing, Error and Flow Control, Framing Techniques, Error Control Methods, Flow Control Methods, PPP and HDLC.MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL LAYER: MAC Layer Design Issues, Channel Allocation Methods, Multiple Access Protocols - ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD Protocols, Collision Free Protocols, Limited Contention Protocols, LAN Architectures, IEEE -802 Standards, Ethernet(CSMA/CD), Token Bus, Token Ring, BridgesNETWORK LAYER Network Layer Design Issues, Routing Algorithms and Protocols, Congestion Control Algorithms and QoS, Internetworking, Addressing, N/W Layer Protocols.TRANSPORT LAYER Transport Layer Design Issues, Transport Services and Sockets, Addressing, Connection Establishment, Connection Release, Flow Control and Buffering, Multiplexing, Transport Layer Protocols, Congestion Control, QoS, Software Defined Networks.APPLICATION LAYER Client Server Model, Domain Name System (DNS), Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Email: SMTP, MIME, POP3, Webmail, FTP, TELNET, Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and_ Recent Developments.Books Recommended 1. William Stalling, "Data and Computer Communication", 10/E, Pearson India, 2017. 2- Andrew S. Tanenbaum, David J. Wetherall, Computer Networks, 6/E, Pearson Education, 2021. 3. B. Forouzan, "Data Communication and Networking", 5/E, McGraw Hill, 2017. 4. Douglas E. Comer, "Internetworking with TCP/IP Volume - I", 6/E Pearson India, 2015.Evaluation 75% Attendance is Mandatory Mid-Semester and End-Semester Exams. Two Quizzes (20 Marks Each), Best Score Will Be Considered ProjectL2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKSL2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKSData Communication Communication means sharing information, which can be local or remote The process of transmitting data between devices or systems through a communication medium.Data Communication: Components Rate E Rule | protocol ale | see fe rile Message, sender, receiver, transmission medium and protocol Mess :: The information or data being transmitted. Sender: The device that initiates the communication Receiver: The device that receives the transmitted message.Data Flow: Simplex Mode Communication is unidirectional, where one device transmits and the other only receives . Keyboard and traditional monitors M ————— One way transimission device 1 device 2Data Flow: Half-Duplex Each device can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. . Communication is bidirectional M =a) a) i Two way transimission i device 1 jut Nor SIMULTANEOUS device 2Data Flow: Full-Duplex Communication is bidirectional and simultaneous ; ‘Two way direction and 7 device 1 ‘SIMULTANEOUS device 2Computer Networks A network is a set of devices connected by communication links. A system where multiple computers are connected to share information and contmanicate © “Using “Petron ones” ge Osta CaTS. * Acomputer network connects two or more independent computers.Types of Computer Networks @ LAN (Local Area Network) “ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) @ WAN (Wide Area Network)° ° ° ° ° LAN (Local Area Network) A Local a Network (LAN) covers a small geographical area, such as home, office, campus. It is easy to design and maintain. It provides high data transfer speed. It has minimal propagation delay. It experiences low network congestion.Local Area Network° ° MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) A network that covers an entire city or large campus. Larger Geographic Coverage than a LAN. Moderate Design & Implementation Complexity. Provides High-Speed Backbone Connectivity. Interconnects Multiple LANs across the metropolitan area.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) LAN1 [tana] LAN 2 couse MAN oe aes [ems]WAN (Wide Area Network) + AWide Area Network (WAN) is a network spread over a large geographical area, such as a country or across the globe. ‘It provides an extensive coverage area, connecting networks over long distances. ‘ WANS are very difficult to design, implement, and maintain due to their size and complexity. ‘ Compared to LAN and MAN, WANs generally offer lower data transfer speed. They experience high propagation delay because data travels over long distances. WANs typically face higher network congestion due to a large number of connected users and networks.Network Topology Topology refers to the layout or structure of a computer network. It describes how devices (nodes) and communication links are arranged. Network topology defines the paths used for data transmission between devices. It provides a geometric representation of all nodes in a network. Network topology can be classified as: Physical Topology ~ actual arrangement of cables and devices Logical Topology — how data flows within the networkNetwork Topology: Types peer gt OK Bus Topology Ring Topolosy Star Topolog: aS Extended seerBus Topology All devices in a bus topology are connected using a single shared cable. Each computer is attached to the main cable through a connector. Only one computer can transmit data at a time, so devices must coordinate their transmissions. The cable segment must be terminated at both ends using terminators to prevent signal reflection.Le Ss3, 7Bus Topology : Advantages Less expensive to install Easy to add stations Works well for small networks Node failures does not affect othersBus Topology: Disadvantages Limited cable length Cable breaks, whole network down Sharing the same cable slows response rate Limited number of devices can be attachedRing Topology oo oo oo Devices are connected in a circular (ring-like) structure. Each device is directly connected to its two neighboring devices. Data is passed from one device to the next device in the ring. Data may travel in a unidirectional or tional manner. Sending and receiving data takes place with the,help of a token, which controls Ring topology can be considered as a bus topology arranged in a closed loop. Information circulates around the ring until it reaches its destination.Station Station Token ring StationRing Topology: Advantages Ring topology uses less cable compared to bus topology. “ Data packets travel at high speed due to an orderly transmission process. Equal access to network resources is provided to all devices.Ring Topology: Disadvantages A break in the ring can cause the entire network to fail. An increase in network load leads to reduced performance.Star Topology All devices are connected to a central device called a hub or switch. Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link with the central node. Alldata communication passes through the central device. © The central hub or switch controls data transmission between connected devices. © Star topology is widely used in modern LANs due to its reliability and ease of management.Advantages: A device or cable failure doesn't affect the entire network. Devices can be added or removed with a single cable connection to the hub. Faulty devices or cables are easy to identify and fixDisadvantages The central hub is critical; if it fails, the entire network stops working Requires higher installation and maintenance expenses Network performance depends on the capacity of the central deviceMesh Topology Each node is connected to every other node in the network In mesh topology, devices are randomly connected Establishing connections in mesh topology can be complex and difficultComputer Computer Computer Computer ComputerMesh Topology: Disadvantages Expensive due to large number of cables and ports Complex installation and maintenance Requires more hardware resources + Difficult to expand the networkHybrid Topology «# Combination of two or more different network topologies + Designed to meet specific network requirements « Provides high performance and reliability « Suitable for networks with a limited number of computers « Useful for networks spread across different geographical locationsFundamental Components of Computer Networks * Physical Media * Interconnecting Devices + Computers > Networking SoftwareComponents of Computer Networks: Physical Media Refers to the pathways through which data travels within a computer network. It provides the means by which signals carrying data are transmitted from one device to another. Physical media can be wired or wireless in nature. Example: twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fiber cables., radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals.Components of Computer Networks: Interconnecting Devices “Connect computers and networks together. Control the flow of data between different devices in a network. These devices help in data forwarding, routing, and traffic management. Bridge, Wireless Access Point Example: Hub, Switch, Router, They play a key role in ensuring efficient, reliable, and secure communication within a network. ooHub * Abasic networking device that connects multiple computers. * Sends data to all connected devices. Operates at the Physical Layer.eee eee Switches and Routers Switches are networking devices that connect multiple devices within a Local Area Network (LAN). ‘They forward data by using the MAC address of the destination device Switches help in efficient and fast communication within the same network. Connect different networks, such as a LAN to the Internet or between two different LANs. Determine the best path for data to travel across networks. Routers use IP addresses to route data packets to their destination.Components of Computer Networks: Computers + + Can function as both a server and a client in a network Server: manages and stores data; provides files, applications, and network services Client: requests and uses services provided by the server Clients depend on servers for access to shared resources and servicesComponents of Computer Networks: Access Points * Access Points allow wireless devices to connect to a wired network. They act as a bridge between wired and wireless networks. They provide Wi-Fi connectivity for devices such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets. Commonly used to extend wireless network coverage.OSI Reference Model ° ° Os! stands for Open Systems Interconnection It deals with open systems that can communicate with each other In 1984, the OSI reference model was approved as an international standard for communication architecture The OS! model is divided into seven layers, each with a specific functionOSI Model “The Physical Layer is the first layer of the OSI model Layers 1 to 3 are related to hardware operations Layer 4 (Transport Layer) is known as the heart of the OS! model Layers 5 to 7 are related to software and 2 application servicesOSI Model - Layer Responsibilities =i) Physical, Data Link, and Network Layers handle (nD network-level data movement Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application Layers are responsible for host-level communication and data processing AiOSI Model - Layer Communication Each OS! layer communicates with the layer above Each OS! layer communicates with the layer below Each OSI layer communicates with its peer layer on other systems Communication occurs between the same layer’s software or hardware on different computersWhy OSI Model Is Important * Helps different systems and vendors communicate with each other * Works without changing existing hardware or software * Provides a common structure for designing networks * Makes learning, development, and troubleshooting easierFunctions of the Physical Layer Transmits data bits from one device to another using a transmission medium Converts digital data (Os and 1s) into signals suitable for physical transmission Defines data rate and transmission speed Specifies transmission modes of communication Determines the physical topology of the networkFrom Data Linklayer To Data Link Layer | [| - | Physical | ww Physical = < g LayerFunctions of the Data link layer Receives packets from the Network Layer and breaks them into frames Sends frames bit by bit to the Physical Layer for transmission * Enables data transfer between two devices on the same network Responsible for flow contro! to regulate data transmission Handles error contro! to ensure reliable intra-network communication Provides physical addressing using MAC addressesNetwork layer Responsible for packet delivery from source to destination (host-to-host communication) Required when communication occurs across different networks & Not needed when two systems are directly connected on the same linkFunctions of Network layer Provides logical addressing using IP addresses to identify devices on the Internet ¢ Performs routing to determine the best path from source to destination ¢ Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP)Transport layer Provides communication services directly to application processes Responsible for process-to-process (end-to-end) data delivery Ensures that the entire message reaches the correct application Operates between source and destination hosts Acts as the heart of the OS! model for reliable communicationFunctions of Transport Layer Identifies applications using port numbers (Service Point Addressing) Breaks data into manageable segments and reassembles them at the receiver “Matches sender speed to receiver capacity (Flow Control) ~ Detects errors using checksums and ensures reliable data delivery Enables multiple applications to communicate simultaneouslySession layer Establishes, manages, and maintains connections between systems for data sharing ** Controls the start, maintenance, and termination of sessions ** Manages communication sessions across multiple communication channels “Ensures orderly and coordinated data exchange between applicationsPresentation layer Acts as the translator of the network Handles the syntax and semantics of data exchanged between communicating systems * Converts data into a standard format understood by both sender and receiver Performs data encoding and decoding Provides encryption and decryption for secure communication Supports data compression to reduce transmission sizeApplication layer + + + The topmost layer of the OSI model Facilitates interaction between users and network services Provides network services directly to the user Supports applications such as web browsing, email, and file transfer Application layer programs follow the client-server modelOSI Model as a Protocol-Independent Standard Protocol-independent standard that does not rely on any specific networking protocol Provides a conceptual framework for data communication between devices Defines what each layer should do, not how it should be implemented o¢ ¢ ¢ & Acts as a blueprint for network design and troubleshootingTCP/IP Reference Model - Introduction TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol It is the foundation of the Internet * Developed by DARPA (USA) for reliable communication @ Used in real-world networking, unlike OSI which is conceptualWhy the TCP/IP Model? * OSI model serves as a theoretical reference framework for understanding network TCP/IP model provides a practical and real-world implementation of networking concepts ‘TCP/IP is widely used for Internet communication, including email, web services, cloud platforms, and mobile networks Focuses on how data actually moves across networks in real operating environmentsTCP/IP Model The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: ° ° * ° Application Layer- provides network services Transport Layer- responsible for end-to-end communication between applications Internet Layer- handles logical addressing and routing Network Access Layer- deals with the physical transmission of dataOSI vs TCP/IP OSI Model (The Blueprint) TCP/IP Model (The Building) 7. Application 6. Presentation Crete 5. Session 4. Transport 3. Network 2. Data Link 1. PhysicalTCP/IP Model - Application Layer % Topmost layer @ Provides network services directly to user applications @ Enables communication between software applications over the network Combines the functions of Application, Presentation, and Session layers of the OSI model @ Responsible for data formatting, communication initiation, and service accessApplication Layer: Key Protocols HTTP / HTTPS — Used for web communication and browsing FTP — Used for file transfer between systems ‘SMTP / POP3/ IMAP - Used for sending and receiving emails DNS - Used for converting domain names into IP addresses ‘SSH / TELNET — Used for remote login and system accessApplication Layer: Key Protocols HTTP / HTTPS — Used for web communication and browsing FTP — Used for file transfer between systems ‘SMTP / POP3/ IMAP - Used for sending and receiving emails DNS - Used for converting domain names into IP addresses ‘SSH / TELNET — Used for remote login and system accessReal-Life Applications Accessing websites through a web browser Sending and receiving emails Uploading and downloading files Using cloud services and online applicationsTCP/IP Model: Transport layer Responsible for maintaining end-to-end communication across the network Ensures reliable and error-free delivery of data between applications Manages data segmentation, flow control, and error control Uses port numbers to identify source and destination applications «Primary Protocols: © TCP — Transmission Control Protocol © UDP - User Datagram Protocol 2Applications Web browsing Email services File download/upload Video streaming Online gaming ooo eeTCP/IP Model: Internet layer Responsible for sending data packets from the source network to the destination network Provides source-to-destination delivery across multiple interconnected networks Handles logical addressing and packet routing Determines the best path for packet transmission Protocols Used: IP (internet Protocol) — IPv4, IPv6 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)Applications ° Enables web browsing by routing data packets between clients and web servers Supports email communication by delivering packets across different networks Facilitates file transfer between remote systems over the Internet Provides access to cloud services hosted on geographically distributed servers ‘Supports network diagnostics such as ping and traceroute using ICMPTCP/IP Model: Network access layer ° + The bottom-most layer of the TCP/IP model Responsible for the physical transmission of data over the network Handles communication between two directly connected devices Performs mapping of IP addresses to physical (MAC) addresses Works with network hardware such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and network interface cards Protocols: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)TCP/IP model is considered a protocol-dependent standard % Itis defined based on specific protocols Each layer of the model is closely linked to real, working network protocols Designed for practical implementation rather than theoretical explanation