Physics Grade 12

Condensed Physics curriculum

from Grades 9-12 designed for Grade 12

tutorial program

Addis Ababa
November/ 2018/2025G.C
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 Physics Grade 12

Preface
Dear teachers,
Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau has prepared this condensed
physics curriculum highlighting on the core lesson notes and selected some key
questions based on the syllabus and past exam papers. In addition, this curriculum
will be delivered exactly next to lesson 8. Thus, it would give the students a solid
foundation about Electrostatics, electric current & Circuit measuring instruments,
Kirchhoff’s Rules, Capacitors and Capacitance

As a professional, feel free to modify, add extra explanations, or include examples

that you think will help students especially, if you know where the students usually
struggle. Moreover, you can bring in your own teaching experiences; employ
different techniques to keep the students engaged.

Generally, the program emphasizes ensuring students’ engagement in ample

practices and completing the sessions with greater confidence that would enhance
their readiness for the university entrance examination.

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Lesson 9
Electrostatics – charge, field and potential

At the end of this lesson delivery, students will be able to:

 Explain the fundamental properties and processes of electric charge, analyze charging and
discharging results
 Apply Coulomb’s law and electric field concepts to determine field magnitude and direction,
interpret electric flux and field-line patterns
 Solve problems involving electric potential, work, and potential energy, and describe volt,
potential difference, emf, and equipotential surfaces.

9.1 Charges in Nature

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electric or magnetic field. Some properties of charge in nature:

1. Charge is a Fundamental Property of Matter

 Every particle (electron, proton) has an electric charge. Electron = -e, Proton = +e

where e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

2. Two Types of Charges: Positive (+), Negative (–) →Like charges repel and unlike
charges attract.
3. Quantization of Charge: Electric charge exists in discrete packets (not continuous).
 Any charge: Q = ne, where e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
4. Conservation of Charge: electric charge cannot be created or destroyed, only
transferred between bodies. In any physical process, the total charge before a process equals
the total charge after.
5. Additivity of Charges: Charges on a body add up algebraically.
 Example: If a body has +3e and –2e → Net charge = +1e.

Electric Neutrality in Nature: At normal condition most bodies are electrically neutral
because the number of protons = number of electrons.
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9.2 Methods of Charging a Body

 Electric charges can be transferred to a neutral body by three main methods:
1. Charging by Friction (Rubbing): When two different materials are rubbed together,
electrons transfer from one to the other.
 Result: One becomes positive, the other negative. Example: Rubbing glass rod with silk →
glass (+), silk (–)
2. Charging by Conduction (Contact): A charged body touches a neutral body →
electrons flow between them.
 Result: Neutral body gets the same type of charge as the charged body.

Example: A negatively charged rod touches a neutral metal sphere → Electrons move to
sphere → Sphere becomes negatively charged. A positively charged rod touches a neutral
sphere → Electrons move from sphere to rod → Sphere becomes positively charged.

3. Charging by Induction (No Contact): A charged object brought near a conductor

causes charge separation inside it (polarization). Then grounding allows electrons to move.
 Result: Neutral body gets the opposite charge of the inducing body. No physical contact
occurs.

Example: Bringing a negatively charged rod near a neutral metal sphere → Electrons move
away → Grounding allows electrons to escape → Sphere becomes positively charged.

Figure 9.1: Charging by induction

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The Electroscope: An electroscope is a simple device used to detect the presence and type
of electric charge on a body.

Uses of an Electroscope:
 Detect charge – divergence shows presence of charge.
 Determine charge type – compare leaf reaction with known charge.
 Check insulation – no divergence means no charge is transferred.
 Detect electric field (ionization) in some cases.

Examples: A negatively charged rod near the knob → leaves diverge due to charge separation.
Touching the knob with a positively charged rod → leaves spread because they gain positive
charge.

Electrical Discharge: is the sudden flow of electric charge through a gas, liquid, or solid to
neutralize accumulated charge.

 Electrical discharge balances charges by allowing electrons to move rapidly from one body to
another. Examples lightning, spark in clothes, etc.

9.3 Coulomb’s Law

 The electrostatic force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of their
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them.
Kq1q2
F=
𝑟2

Figure 9.2: (a) Like charges; electric force is repulsive. (b) unlike charges; electric force is
attractive.

Where K is called the electrostatic or Coulomb constant of proportionality and its value is
1
given as: K = = 9 x10 9 N m2/C2 (in SI units system). Here 𝛜0 is electrical permittivity of
4πϵ0
vacuum. Its value is 8.854 × 10-12 N-1m-2 C2.

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 Force on a charge due to multiple electric charges: For n stationary charges in vacuum, the
force on q1 due to charges q2, q3, . . .., q n is the vector sum of all individual Coulomb forces
acting on it.
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹⃗12 +𝐹⃗13 +𝐹⃗14 + . . . . +𝐹⃗1𝑛 (this is known as the superposition principle).

Example 9.1: A point charge of +3.00 × 10−6 C is 12.0 cm distant from a second point charge of
−1.50 × 10−6 C. Calculate the magnitude of the force on each charge.

Solution: K = 9 x10 9 N m2/C2; r = 12cm = 0.12m

Kq1q2
F= = 2.81N (Each charge experiences a force of attraction).
𝑟2

Example 9.2: Two protons and an electron are assembled along a line, as shown in figure 9.3
below. The distance between the electron and each proton is a. Find the net force on the
electron.

Fig 9.3

Solution: The proton on the left attracts the electron. This force pulls the electron to the left.

2
⃗⃗left = K e
F 2a

 The proton on the right attracts the electron. This force pulls the electron to the right.

2
⃗⃗right = K e
F 2a

K e2 K e2
⃗F⃗net = ⃗F⃗right - ⃗F⃗left = - = 0 (the electron is in a state of electrostatic equilibrium).
a2 a2

Exercise 9.1: Two small positively charged spheres have a combined charge of 5.0 × 10 −5 C. If
each sphere is repelled from the other by an electrostatic force of 1.0 N when the spheres are 2.0
m apart, what is the charge on each sphere?

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9.3 Electric field

 An electric field is a region of space in which a test charge experiences an electric force due
to the presence of other charges.
 If a test charge q0 is placed at a position r, and the surrounding external charges exert a net
force 𝐹⃗ on it, then the electric field at that point is defined as:

⃗
𝐹
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐪𝟎

Figure 9.4: The E field due to a point charge q. (a) If the charge q is positive and (b) If the charge
q is negative.

 A test charge is a positive electric charge whose charge is so small that it does not
significantly disturb the charges that create the electric field.
 The vector E has the SI units of newtons per coulomb (N/C). The direction of E, as shown in
figure 9.4, is the direction of the force a positive test charge experiences when placed in the
field.

Electric field Lines: is an imaginary continuous line or curve drawn to visualize an electric
field lines as shown in figure 9.5 below.

Fig 9.5

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Properties of Electric Field Lines:

1. Never cross each other.

2. Originate from a positive charge and terminate to a negative charge.
3. Always perpendicular to the charged surface.
4. The closer lines, the stronger field, and the farther apart they are the weaker electric field.
5. Equally spaced lines show a uniform electric field (e.g., between parallel plates).

9.4 Electric Field Strength (E)

 The Electric Field 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point in space is defined as the electric force 𝐹⃗ per unit
𝐹⃗
positive test charge q placed at that point: 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐪

 Using Coulomb's Law, the electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ at a distance (r) from a point charge (Q) is:

KqQ
⃗⃗ = K 2Q
𝐹⃗ = 2 → 𝐸
𝑟 𝑟

 ⃗⃗
The electric field 𝑬 is independent of the test charge q, but only depends on the source
charge Q and the distance r.

Example 9. 2: A point charge Q = +5.0 μC is at the origin. Find the electric field magnitude and
direction at point P located on the x-axis at x = 0.20 m.

Solution: K = 9 x10 9 N m2/C2; r = 0.2m

KQ
𝐸⃗⃗ = 2 = 1.125 x 106 N/C (Charge is positive → field points radially away from origin)
𝑟

 Electric field for multiple point charges: Based on the superposition principle
states that the total electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ net at any point is the vector sum of the individual

⃗⃗ 1, 𝐸⃗⃗ 2, 𝐸⃗⃗ 3, …. 𝐸⃗⃗ n created by each individual source charge at that point.
electric fields 𝐸

𝐸⃗⃗ net = 𝐸⃗⃗ 1 + 𝐸⃗⃗ 2 + 𝐸⃗⃗ 3, …. + 𝐸⃗⃗ n

Example 9.3: Two opposite charges setup horizontally, Q1 = +3.0 μC at x = 0, Q2 = −1.0 μC at x

= 0.20 m . Find the electric field at x = 0.10 m.

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K Q1
𝐸⃗⃗ 1 = 2 = 2.7×106 N/C (away from +Q1 → to the right)
𝑟1

K Q2
𝐸⃗⃗ 2 = 2 = 9.0 ×105 N/C ( towards +Q2 → to the right)
𝑟2

𝐸⃗⃗ net = 𝐸⃗⃗ 1 + 𝐸⃗⃗ = 2.7×106 N/C +9.0 ×105 N/C = 3.6 ×106 N/C to the right

Exercise 9.2: What is the net force on charge A in each configuration shown below? The
distances are r1 = 12.0 cm and r2 = 20.0 cm.

Fig 9.6

Electric flux: is the measure of how many electric field lines pass through a surface.

 It is proportional to the product of the electric field E and the surface area A perpendicular to
the field. Electric flux ∅ is a scalar quantity, whose SI unit is N.m2/C.

∅ = 𝑬 . A = EA cos𝛉

Where E = is the magnitude of the uniform electric field (N/C), A = is the area of the surface
(m2), θ = is the angle between the electric field vector E and the normal vector
perpendicular to the surface, not the angle between the field and the surface itself.

Fig 9.7

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Example 9.3: find the electric flux through the surface with sides of 15 cm x 15cm positioned in
a uniform electric field of 150 N/C as shown in figure 9.8 below.

Fig 9.8

Solution: in this problem, the electric field makes an angle of 300 with the plane. In this case, we
cannot simply say that the angle between E and n is 900-300 = 600. Because the field vector
points into the surface and the normal vector is directed out of the plane.

∅ = 𝑬 . A = EA cos θ = -150 N/C x (0.15)2 m2 x cos 600 = - 1.125 N. m2/C

 The minus sign of the flux indicates that the electric field lines are going into the surface.

Exercise 9. 3: A uniform electric field with a magnitude of 5.6 N/C incident on a plane with a
surface of area 0.16 m2 and makes an angle of 430 with respect to the surface as shown in figure
9.9 below. Find the electric flux through this surface. (Use sin430 = cos470 = 0.682; sin 470 =
cos430 = 0.731).

Fig 9.9

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9.5 Electric Potential Energy (U)

 Electric potential energy: is the energy stored in a charged particle due to its position in an
electric field. Similar to a mass storing gravitational potential energy in a gravitational field
of another mass.

K Qq
U=
𝑟

Fig 9.10 Electric potential energy

 Work done by an external force changes the electrical potential energy of a charge.

K Qq
W = ∆𝑈 =
𝑟

 Moving a + charge toward another + charge → stored potential energy increases.

 Moving a + charge toward a – charge → potential energy decreases.

Electric potential(V): is the work done per unit charge to bring a small positive test
charge from infinity to that point.
→ ∆U
V= =
𝐪 q

 SI unit of electric potential is volt (V), which equals joule per coulomb (J/C).
 Electric potential tells how much electric energy a unit charge has at a point.
 High potential = more energy per charge
 Charges move from high potential to low potential (like water flowing downhill)

Electric potential due to a point charge: is the amount of electric potential (energy per
unit charge) created at a distance r from that single point charge.

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 It tells us how much work is needed to bring 1 coulomb of charge from infinity to a point
near that charge i.e. If source Q is positive → potential is positive and If Source Q is
negative → potential is negative.

Figure 9.11 Electric potential

W KQ
V= =
𝑞 𝑟

Electrical potential difference (ΔV): is the difference in electric potential (voltage)

between two points in an electric field. It tells how much work is needed to move 1 C of charge
from one point to another.

 In the figure 9.12 shown below, a positive test charge +q moves from A to B in the electric
field of +Q. As it moves, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy, so A has
higher potential than B.
 The potential difference ΔV between points A and B is the work done per unit charge to
move a test charge from A to B is:
𝐀𝐁 KQ KQ
ΔV = VB - VA = = -
𝐪 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴

𝐀𝐁 = q (VB - VA)
 Work done in moving a charge between two points depends only on the potential
difference, not the shape or spacing of the equipotential lines:

Fig 9.12

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Note that:

 Electric field points from high potential → low potential.

 If ΔV < 0 → a unit positive test charge q, moving along the electric field i.e. moves from
high voltage to low voltage → ΔV = V final –V initial < 0.
 If ΔV > 0 → a unit positive test charge q moving against the electric field i.e. moves from
low voltage to high voltage → ΔV = V final –V initial > 0.

Example 9.4: Determine the electric potential difference between two points A and B that are 2
mm and 5 mm from a charge of 2 μC respectively.

Solution:

rA =2mm = 2×10−3m, rB = 5mm = 5×10−3m

KQ KQ
Electric potential difference ΔV = r - = −5.4×106 volts
B rA

 This means the potential decreases as you move from 2 mm to 5 mm from the charge.

Potential difference in a uniform electric field: In a uniform electric field (E), the
potential difference (∆V) between two points separated by distance d along the direction of the
field is:

Figure 9.13: Potential difference in a uniform electric field

∆
∆V = Ed → E =

 The unit of electric field to be volt per meter i.e. 1 N / C =1 V / m.

 Uniform field → straight parallel lines → constant potential drop per meter.

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 Potential decreases along in the field lines direction, increases against the field lines.
 Perpendicular movement (θ = 90°): ∆V = 0

9.6 Equipotential line or surface

 Equipotential Line: A line along which the electric potential is the same at every point
(2D case).
 Equipotential Surface: A surface along which the electric potential is the same at every
point (3D case).
 The characteristics of equipotential lines/surfaces:
 Equipotential lines/surfaces are always perpendicular to the electric field lines.
 No work is required to move a charge along an equipotential surface: W = q ΔV = 0.
 The equipotential lines of a point charge are concentric sphere in a uniform electric
field
 Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.

Figure 9.14: Equipotential lines of (a) a uniform field, (b) a point charge.

Example 9.5: The electric potential 10 cm from a 1.3 × 10–6 C charged sphere is given by:

Solution:

KQ
V= = 117kV
𝑟

Example 9.6: Calculate the change in electrical potential energy of a proton as it moves from 5
cm to 0.1 cm from a charged sphere with a charge of 1 nC.

Solution: r2 = 0.001m; r1 = 0.05m, q = 1nC

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Kq Kq
ΔV = - = 8.8kV → ∆ = ∆V q = 1.4 × 10–15 J.
r2 r1

Review exercises for lesson 9

1. Two identical neutral spheres A and B are touched by a negatively charged rod. After
removing the rod, the spheres are:
A. Both positive C. Both negative
B. One positive, one negative D. Neutral
2. A glass rod rubbed with silk becomes positively charged because:
A. Protons are transferred to silk
B. Electrons are transferred to silk
C. Electrons are transferred to glass
D. Protons move from glass to silk
3. In charging by induction, a negatively charged rod is brought near a neutral metal sphere.
The sphere will have:
A. Entirely positive charge
B. Entirely negative charge
C. Induced positive near side, negative far side
D. No charge
4. A conductor carries a current of 1.6A for 10 sec. Given the elementary charge (e = 1.6 x10-19
C, how many electrons pass through a cross-section of the conductor during this time?
A. 1 x1019 B. 1 x 1020 C. 1.6 x1019 D. 1.6 x1020
5. If you dive into a pool of seawater through which an equal amount of positively and
negatively charged particles is moving, will you receive an electric shock?
A. Yes, because negatively charged particles are moving.
B. No, because positively charged particles are moving.
C. Yes, because positively and negatively charged particles are moving.
D. No, because equal amounts of positively and negatively charged particles are moving.
6. There are very large numbers of charged particles in most objects. Why, then, don’t most
objects exhibit static electric effects?
A. Most objects are neutral.
B. Most objects have positive charge only.

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C. Most objects have negative charge only.

D. Most objects have excess protons.
7. Two identical conducting spheres, one charged and one uncharged, are brought into contact.
After separation, the charge on each sphere is:
A. Same as initial on the charged sphere C. Half of the initial charge
B. Twice the initial charge D. Zero
8. In bringing an electron towards another electron, the electrostatic potential energy of the
system:
A. becomes zero B. increases C. decreases D. remains same
9. The diagram shows electric field lines produced by two point charges q1 and q2. Determine
the sign of each charge.

Fig 9.15

A. q1 is positive while q2 is negative C. both are negative

B. q1 is negative while q2 is positive D. both are positive
10. A square surface of side L lies in the plane of the paper and is placed in a uniform electric
field E, which also lies in the same plane and makes an angle θ with the horizontal side of
the square, as shown in Figure 9.17. The electric flux through the surface is:

Fig 9.16

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A. EL2 C. E L2 cos
B. E L2 sin D. zero
11. Two point charges A and B, having charges +Q and –Q respectively, are placed at certain
distance apart and force acting between them is F. If 25% charge of A is transferred to B,
then force between the charges becomes:
4 16
A. B. F C. 16 D.
3

12. Which of the following correctly states the conservation of electric charge in the universe?
A. The total charge of universe is constant
B. The total positive charge of universe is constant
C. The total negative charge of universe is constant
D. The total number of charge particles in universe is constant

13. The electric field intensity at a point at a distance 2 m from a charge Q is 4N/C. Find the
amount of work done in bringing a charge of 1C from infinity to this point.
A. 2 J B. 4 J C. 8 J D. 16 J
14. Suppose a region of space has a uniform electric field, directed towards the right, as shown in
figure 10.6 below. Which statement is true?

Fig 9.17

A. The potential at all three locations is the same.

B. The potential at points A and B are equal and the potential at point C is higher than the
potential at point A.
C. The potential at points A and B are equal, and the potential at point C is lower than the
potential at point A.
D. The potential at point A is the highest, the potential at point B is the second highest, and the
potential at point C is the lowest.

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15. A charge of 3C experiences a force 3000 N when placed in a uniform electric field. The
potential difference between two points separated by a distance of 1 cm along the field lines
is:
A. 10 V B. 90 V C. 1000 V D. 9000V
16. An electron and proton projected perpendicular to uniform electric field at a same point with
equal kinetic energy then which is correct for their deflection:
A. equal and in opposite direction C. unequal and in same direction
B. equal and in same direction D. unequal and in opposite direction
17. Electric field in a region is directed outwards and proportional to distance r from origin.
Taking potential at origin to be zero, potential in the region is:
A. Uniform C. Proportional to r
B. Proportional to r2 D. Increases as we move away from origin.
18. A charge of +2 μC is moved from a point where the electric potential is 20 V to another point
where the potential is 50 V. The change in electric potential energy is:
A. –60 μJ B. +60 μJ C. –30 μJ D. +30 μJ
19. A proton is moved against a uniform electric field. Which of the following is true?
A. Its potential energy decreases C. Its potential energy increases
B. Its kinetic energy increases D. The work done by the field is positive
20. Two points in a uniform electric field differ in potential by 12 V. If the separation is 0.3 m,
the electric field magnitude is:
A. 3.6 N/C B. 40 N/C C. 12 N/C D. 36 N/C
21. Which statement is correct for electric potential energy U of two charges?
A. U is always positive C. U is always negative
B. U depends only on magnitude of charges D. U depends on sign and separation of
charges
22. Calculate the force between two point charges of 6 × 10–12 C a distance of 9 mm apart. Calculate the
force between the two charges when: (a) one of the charges changes to 9 × 10–12 C (b) the distance
increases to 12 mm.
23. An electron experiences a force of 6.0 μ N when passing through an electric field. Calculate the
electric field strength
24. Determine the change in electrical potential energy when an electron moves towards a proton from an
initial distance of 0.1 mm to a distance of 0.1 μ m.

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Lesson 10

Electric current and Circuit

At the end of this lesson delivery, students will be able to:

 Explain the terms electric current, current density, resistance, conductivity, resistivity and
drift velocity.
 Determine current, and solve problems involving Ohm’s Law.
 Determine equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series and parallel.

10. Electric Current, Resistance and ohm’s law

Electric Current (I): The rate at which electric charge flows through a conductor, measured
in amperes (A) i.e. 1A = 1C/s.

charge Q
Electric current = →I =
time t

Figure 10.1 Electric circuit

Example 10.1: A flow of 107 electrons per second in a conducting wire constitutes a current of:

Solution: Q = ne =107×1.6×10−19 C/s = 1.6 x10-12 C/s

Q
I = = 1.6 x10-12 A
t

Conductivity, resistivity and resistance

Conductivity: is the measure of how easily a material allows electric charge to flow.
 It is given the symbol σ and its units are Siemens per meter (S/m).
 High σ → high carrier density or mobility.
 Metals have high σ; insulators have very low σ.

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Resistivity: is a measure of how much a material resists the flow of an electric current.
 It is given the symbol ρ and its units are ohm meters (Ω. m)
 It depends only on the type of material nature, temperature, and structure, not on the
length or thickness of a material.
 Low ρ → good conductor (metals).
 High ρ → insulator (rubber, glass).
1
 It is the reciprocal of resistivity: σ = 𝝆

Resistance: is the total measure of the opposition to the electric current flow in an electric
circuit.

 Analogy: Resistance is like a narrow or rough pipe that makes it harder or slowing down
for water to flow → just like higher resistance makes current harder or slowing down to
flow.
 Resistance depends on material (resistivity ρ), geometry (length L, cross-sectional area
A), and temperature(T).
𝐋
R=ρ𝐀
 The resistance (R) of a uniform conductor is directly proportional to its resistivity (ρ)
and length (L), and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (A).

Figure 10.2: A uniform conductor of length L, and cross-sectional area A.

Exercise 10.1: A cylindrical copper cable carries a current of 1200 A. There is a potential
difference of 1.6 × 10−2 V between two points on the cable that are 0.24 m apart. What is the
radius of the cable? The resistivity of a copper wire is 1.72 × 10−8 Ω · m

Exercise 10.2: A wire has an initial length L0 and cross-sectional area A0. It is stretched to twice
its original length, assuming the area remains constant during this ideal stretching. Find the new
resistance of the wire.

Drift Velocity (vₑ): is the average velocity of free electrons in a conductor due to the applied
electric field across a conductor.

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𝑰
Vd = → I = ne A Vd
𝒏𝒆 𝑨

Figure 10.3 Motion of electrons through a conductor

Where n = number of electrons per unit volume; A= cross-sectional area of a conductor, e =

charge of one electron, and I = electric current.

 Even without an external electric field, free electrons exhibit random thermal motion
within the conductor.
 Under an applied electric field, electrons acquire a net drift velocity opposite to both the
electric field and the direction of conventional current.

Exercise 10.3: A copper wire with a diameter of 2mm carries a current of 15A. Calculate the
drift velocity of electrons. (Given: Density of free electrons in copper, n = 8.5 x 1028 electrons
/m3.

Current density: is the measure of the current flowing through a unit cross-sectional area of
a conductor.

 It measures the intensity of charge flow at a point or per unit area-shows how tightly packed
the moving charges are.
 It is a vector quantity directed along the conventional current flow. The unit of current
density is A/m².
𝑰
J= = ne Vd
𝑨
 Current density in a material is directly proportional to the applied electric field, and the
material’s conductivity σ.

Example 10.2: Find the approximate current density when an electric field of 5 V/m is applied
to a copper conductor. The conductivity of copper is 59.6 × 106 S/m.

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Solution: J = σ E = 2.98 × 108 A/m2

Exercise 10.4: A silver wire (conductivity σ = 6.3 x 107 S/m carries a current such that the
current density within the wire is 4.2 x 106 A/m2. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field
required to maintain this current density.

Ohm’s Law: states that the current (I) through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage (V) across it, provided that the temperature and other physical conditions remain
constant.

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝑽
Resistance = 𝐂𝐮 R=
𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝑰

Where V = Voltage (Volts, V), I = Current (Amperes, A), and R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)

Figure 10.4: Current vs. voltage for an ohmic and non-ohmic material

 For non-ohmic conductors, such as a filament lamp, the current is not directly proportional to
the potential difference i.e. resistance of the filament lamp increases as temperature increases.
 For ohmic conductors, such as copper, iron, zinc e.t.c. the current is directly proportional to
the potential difference.

10.2 Combination of resistors in a circuit

 Combination of resistors: Arrangement of two or more resistors in a circuit to control total

resistance, either in series, parallel, or a mix of both.

Series Connection: is defined as when two or more resistors are connected end-to-end, they
form a single path for the current flow.

 Key Characteristics of series connection:

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 Physics Grade 12

1. The same current (I) passes through all the resistances in a circuit.
I = I1 = I2 = I3 =… = In
2. The potential difference is different across each resistance i.e. Total (net) voltage across the
combination is the sum of voltage drops across each resistor:
V total = V1 + V2 +V3 + …….
3. The total or equivalent resistance (Req) is equal to the sum of all individual resistances:
R eq = R1 + R2 + R3 + …….
 Let three resistances R1, R2, R3 be connected in series as shown in figure 11.5.

Figure 10.5

Parallel Connection: is an arrangement where two or more resistors are connected

across the same two points, so that the same voltage acts on each resistor.

 Key Characteristics of parallel connection:

1. The voltage or potential difference across each resistance is the same.
V = V1 = V2 = V3 =, …….
2. The current passing through each resistance is different. The total current among the resistors
is the sum of current flow through each resistor:
I total = I1+I2+I3+ …….
3. The total or equivalent resistance (Req) is equal to the reciprocal sum of all individual
resistances:

1 1 1 1
= + + + ……
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Let there be three resistances R1, R2, R3 connected in parallel as shown in Fig 10.6.

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 Physics Grade 12

Figure 10.6

Example 10.3: The circuit shown in Figure 10.7 below: A circuit with three known resistors and
an unknown resistor R3, for which the total equivalent resistance is 150 Ω. determine the
unknown resistor R3:

Fig 10.7

Solution: all four resistances in series

Req = R1+R2 +R3+ R4

R3 = Req - R1-R2 –R4 = 100 Ω

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 Physics Grade 12

Review exercises for lesson 10

1. A conductor carries a current of 1.6A for 10 sec. Given the elementary charge (e = 1.6 x10-19
C, how many electrons pass through a cross-section of the conductor during this time?

A. 1 x1019 B. 1 x 1020 C. 1.6 x1019 D. 1.6 x1020

2. If the length of a uniform wire is doubled while keeping volume constant, the resistance
becomes

A. 2R B. 4R C. R/2 D. R

3. Two identical resistors R in series and the same two in parallel are connected to same
voltage. The ratio of currents in parallel vs series is:

A. 1:1 B. 2:1 C. 4:1 D. 1:2

4. What is an ohmics material?

A. is a material that obeys Ohm’s law. C. is a material that does not obey Ohm’s law.

B. is a material that has high resistance. D. is a material that has low resistance

5. If you double the voltage across an ohmic resistor, how does the current through the resistor
change?

A. The current will double. C. The current will increase by half.

B. The current will decrease by half. D. The current will decrease by a factor of
two.

6. 10 nC of charge flows through a circuit in 3.0 × 10−6 s. What is the current during this time?

A. The current passes through the circuit is 3.3 × 10−3 A.

B. The current passes through the circuit is 30 A.

C. The current passes through the circuit is 33 A.

D. The current passes through the circuit is 0.3 A.

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 Physics Grade 12

7. A dust particle acquires a charge of −13 nC. How many excess electrons does it carry? (Use
charge of one electron -1.6 x10-19 C).

A. 20.8 × 10−28 electrons C. 20.8 × 10−19 electrons

B. 8.1 × 1010 electrons D. 8.1 × 1019 electrons

8. A combination of a 6 Ω and a 3 Ω resistor is connected in series, and this combination is in

parallel with a 2 Ω resistor across 12 V. what is the total current drawn from battery:

A. 6 A B. 7 A C. 10 A D. 12 A

9. A copper wire of radius (r) carries a current (I). If the radius is halved while keeping the
current constant, the drift velocity vd of electrons will:

A. Double C. Remain unchanged

B. Become one-fourth D. Become four times larger
10. As shown in figure 11.8 below current through 3 Ohm resistor is 0.8 ampere. Find: (a) the
total resistance of the resistor, (b) the source of potential difference and (c) he potential drop
through 4-ohm resistor.

Fig 10.8

11. Determine the current in the circuit as shown in figure 11.9 below.

Fig 10.9
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 Physics Grade 12

Lesson 11

Measuring instruments and Kirchhoff’s Rules

At the end of this lesson delivery, students will be able to:
 Explain and apply the operating principles of the potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge.

 Describe how to convert galvanometer to a voltmeter and ammeter.

 Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to solve circuit problems.

11.1 Measurement of Current and voltmeter

Measurement of current
 Current is measured using an ammeter, which is placed in series with the resistor so the
circuit’s current flows through it.
 An ideal ammeter has negligible (≈ 0) internal resistance to avoid altering the circuit and to
minimize energy loss.

Measurement of Voltage:
 A voltmeter measures the voltage or potential difference between two points and is
connected in parallel with the component.
 It has very high (ideally infinite) resistance to prevent current from flowing through it.

Galvanometer:

 A galvanometer is a high-sensitivity instrument that detects very small currents via

needle deflection produced by the magnetic force on a current-carrying coil.
 The deflection is proportional to the current passed.

Fig11.1 The moving-coil galvanometer

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 Physics Grade 12

Converting a galvanometer into an ammeter

 A galvanometer becomes an ammeter by connecting a low-resistance shunt in parallel.

 The shunt resistance carries most of the current, while only a small current Ig passes
through the galvanometer to produce deflection.

Fig11.2 Converting galvanometer to an ammeter

 The value of the shunt resistance 𝐑 𝐒𝐡 required to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter
is:

Vg = VSh → Ig R g = ISh R Sh since ISh = I- Ig

𝐈𝐠
𝐑 𝐒𝐡 = ( 𝐑𝐠
𝐈− 𝐈𝐠 )

Where I = current in the circuit; Ig = galvanometer current; ISh = current through shunt
resistance; R Sh = shunt resistance; R g = galvanometer resistance; VSh = voltage drop across shunt
resistance and Vg = galvanometer voltage.

Converting a galvanometer into voltmeter

 A galvanometer becomes a voltmeter by adding a high-resistance multiplier in series with

it.
 The series connection ensures a small, fixed current flows, allowing it to measure potential
difference

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Figure 11.3: Converting a galvanometer into voltmeter

 The value of the multiplier resistance 𝐑 𝐌 required to convert the galvanometer into a
voltmeter is:

V = Vg + VM → Ig R g + Ig R M → Ig (R g +R M )

𝐕
R g +R M = I → 𝐑𝐌 = 𝐈 - 𝐑𝐠
g 𝐠

Where R M = multiplier resistance, R 𝐠 = the resistance of a galvanometer, V = the potential

difference to be measured by the voltmeter, and Ig = galvanometer current.

Example 11.1: A galvanometer of full-scale deflection 5 mA is to be converted into a 10 A

ammeter. If its coil has a resistance of 50 Ω, what value shunt must be fitted?

Solution: I = 10A; Ig = 5mA; R g = 50 Ω; R Sh =?

Ig
R Sh = (I− I ) R g = 0.025 Ω
g

Example11.2: A galvanometer has a resistance of 40 Ω and is of 3 mA full scale deflection. How

would you modify it to a 0-10 V voltmeter?

Solution: V = 10V; R g = 40 Ω; Ig = I = 3 mA; R M =?

R M = I - R g = 3333.33Ω-40 Ω = 3.29k Ω
g

Exercise 11.1: A galvanometer has full-scale deflection Ig =2 mA, and coil resistance Rg
=100 Ω. Convert it into a 5 A. What shunt is required?

Exercise 11.2: A galvanometer has a resistance of 50 Ω and gives full-scale deflection at 2 mA.
How would you convert it into a 0-5 V voltmeter?

Potential Divider

 A series resistor network that provides a fraction of the input voltage.

 Can be fixed or variable, but load-dependent-output voltage changes if a load is
connected.
 Draws current, causing power loss.

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 Physics Grade 12

 Applications: sensor circuits, transistor biasing, adjustable voltage supply.

 Summary: Simple resistors → voltage division → load-sensitive → moderate accuracy.

Figure 11.4 Potential divider circuit

 The output voltage drop across resistor R 2 is given by:

𝐑𝟐 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝐕𝐢𝐧 𝐑 since 𝐈𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 = 𝐑
𝟏+ 𝐑𝟐 𝟏+ 𝐑𝟐

Potentiometer:

 A potentiometer is a three-terminal adjustable resistor used as a precision null-method

instrument for measuring unknown emf or potential difference.
 Operates based on the principle at zero current, giving high accuracy and avoiding internal-
resistance errors.
 Load-independent since balance occurs with no current drawn.
 Used for emf measurement, internal resistance determination, voltage comparison, and
in electronics for volume or brightness control.

Figure 11.5 Symbols of a potentiometer

Wheatstone bridge
 A Wheatstone bridge is a precision resistive circuit with four resistors arranged that used
to measure unknown resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge network.

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 Physics Grade 12

 Balance condition: No potential difference across the galvanometer (there is no current

flow through the galvanometer at balance, which eliminates measurement errors.

Figure 11.6 A Wheatstone bridge

 Under this condition as shown in figure 11.6 above:
VAC = VAD → I1 R1 = I2 R 2
And also: VCB = VDB → I3 R 3 = I4 R 4

Where I1 , I2 , I3 , and I4 are current in resistance arms respectively, since I1 = I3 , I2 = I4 .

𝐑𝟏 𝐑 𝐑
= 𝐑𝟐 or 𝐑 𝐱 = 𝐑 𝟒 = 𝐑 𝟑 𝐑𝟐
𝐑𝟑 𝟒 𝟏

 Wheatstone bridge → precision resistive network → unknown resistance measured at zero

galvanometer current → highly accurate → used in sensors and calibration.

Example 11.4: The Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in figure 11.7 below is balanced (the
voltmeter reads 0V). Determine the unknown resistance of 𝐑 𝟒 .

Fig11.7
Solution:
Wheatstone bridge is balanced, so:

R1 R
= R3
R2 4
R 600 𝑥 40
R 4 = R 2 R3 → = 30 Ω
1 800

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 Physics Grade 12

Exercise11.3: Determine the value of the unknown resistance 𝐑 𝐱 in each case.

Fig11.8 (a) and (b).

Comparing the Brightness of Bulbs

 Brightness of a bulb tells us how much light it gives.

 The amount of light emitted by a bulb (brightness) is measured in Lumens.
 Power depends on current through the bulb and its resistance:
 The brightness of a bulb is proportional to the electrical power it receives:
𝐕𝟐
P = 𝐈𝟐 R or P=
𝐑

 Higher power → brighter bulb it shines, while lower power → dimmer bulb

Connection Voltage/Current Power Brightest Bulb

Series Same current P = 𝐈𝟐 R Higher resistance brighter

Parallel Same voltage P=
𝐕𝟐 Lower resistance brighter
𝐑

Balanced Wheatstone No current in middle 0 Middle bulb off

Unbalanced Current divides P = 𝐈𝟐 R Depends on series-parallel division
Wheatstone

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11.2 Kirchhoff’s Rules

 Kirchhoff’s Rules are used to analyze complex electrical circuits where series and parallel
combinations occur. There are two rules:

Kirchhoff’s first rule (Junction rule)

 At any junction in an electrical circuit, the total current entering a junction must be equal
to the total current leaving the junction.

Figure 11.9: Kirchhoff’s junction rule

∑ 𝐈𝐢𝐧 = ∑ 𝐈𝐨𝐮𝐭 → 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟑 + 𝐈𝟒 (Based on charge conservation).

 Sign convention: Currents entering junction = +, leaving = − (or vice versa, as long as
consistent).

Example 11.5: The figure 11.10 below is part of a circuit. Calculate the current in the wire X.
State the direction of this current (towards P or away from P).

Fig11.10

Solution:

 Current in wire X (assume towards P): 3A Points right, towards P entering, 2.5 A Points left,
towards P entering and 7A Points down, away from P leaving.

3A +2.5A +IX = 7A → IX = + 1.5A

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 Physics Grade 12

 Current in wire X (assume away from P):

3A +2.5A = IX +7A→ 𝐈𝐗 = - 1.5A
 Since the calculated value for 𝐈𝐗 is negative, our initial assumption for its direction (towards
P) was correct. The magnitude of the current is 1.5A.

Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop Rule)

 Kirchhoff’s second rule-the loop rule states that the algebraic sum of changes in potential
around any closed circuit path (loop) must be zero:
∑ 𝑽 = 0 (Based on energy conservation).
 Apply for Kirchhoff’s loop rule the following convention map in figure 11.11 is used.

Figure 11.11 Each of these resistors and voltage sources is traversed from a to b.

a. When moving across a resistor in the same direction as the current flow, subtract the potential
drop.
b. When moving across a resistor in the opposite direction as the current flow, add the potential
drop.
c. When moving across a voltage source from the negative terminal to the positive terminal,
add the potential drop.
d. When moving across a voltage source from the positive terminal to the negative terminal,
subtract the potential drop.
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Example 11.6: Consider the circuit in Figure 11.12. Let us analyze this circuit to find the current
through each resistor.

Fig 11.12

Solution: Apply Kirchhoff’s junction and loop rules

 We need to choose the loops in Figure 11.13 below, loop abefa includes the voltage source
V1 and resistors R1 and R 2 . Loop ebcde includes the voltage source V2 and resistors R 2 ,
R 3 and R 4 .
 The first loop, loop abefa, the loop starts at point a, then travels through points b, e, and f,
and then back to point a.
 The second loop, loop ebcde, the loop starts at point e, then travels through points b, c, and
d, and then back to point e.

Fig 11.13

 As shown in Figure 12.13 Junction b shows that 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 and Junction e shows that 𝐈𝟏
= 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 . Since Junction e gives the same information of Junction b, it can be disregarded.

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 Physics Grade 12

∑𝑽 = 0

Loop abefa: - I1 R1 − I2 R 2 +V1 = 0, → 𝑽𝟏 = 𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐

Loop ebcde: I2 R 2 − I3 R 3 - I4 R 4 -V2 = 0, → 𝑽𝟐 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 − 𝐈𝟑 (𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟒 )

 We now have three equations, which we can solve for the three unknowns.
1. Junction b: I1 - I2 + I3 = 0
2. Loop abefa: I1 R1 + I2 R 2 = 𝑉1
3. Loop ebcde: I2 R 2 − I3 (R 3 + R 4 ) = 𝑉2
 To solve the three equations for the three unknown currents, start by eliminating current 𝐈𝟐 .
The result of each current is becomes:
I1 = 3A, I3 = -2A, and I2 = I1 + I3 = 5A
Exercise 11.4: Find the current flowing in the circuit shown in Figure 12.14 by using
Kirchhoff’s Rules.

Fig 11.14

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 Physics Grade 12

Review Exercise for lesson 11

1. A galvanometer has an internal resistance of 50 Ω and a full-scale deflection current of

1 mA. To convert it into a 1 A ammeter, the required shunt resistance is:
A. 0.05 Ω B. 0.04995 Ω C. 50 Ω D. 0.5 Ω
2. A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a series resistance. If the
galvanometer has 100 Ω internal resistance and 2 mA full-scale current, the series resistance
required to make it a 10 V voltmeter is:
A. 4.9 kΩ B. 5 kΩ C. 1 kΩ D. 500 Ω
3. Which of the following statements is correct when a galvanometer is used as an ammeter?
A. Series resistance is added to increase full-scale current
B. Series resistance is added to limit full-scale current
C. Parallel resistance is added to increase sensitivity
D. Parallel resistance is added to decrease sensitivity
4. A potential divider consists of two resistors in series connected across 12 V. If the resistors
are equal, the voltage across each resistor is:
A. 6 V B. 12 V C. 3 V D. 0 V
5. A potentiometer is preferred over a voltmeter for precise EMF measurement because:
A. It draws no current from the circuit C. It has very high resistance
B. It can measure large currents D. It uses less voltage
6. A potential divider can be used to:
A. Step up voltage C. Step down voltage
B. Measure current directly D. Measure resistance directly
7. Which of the following is a key advantage of the Wheatstone bridge?
A. Can measure AC voltages C. Can measure very low resistances precisely
B. Can convert current into voltage D. Can measure high currents directly
8. Which of the following is true about Kirchhoff’s loop rule?
A. It is based on the conservation of energy
B. It is based on conservation of charge
C. It measures potential difference directly
D. It is valid only for AC circuits

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 Physics Grade 12

9. A circuit has resistors R1 = 6 Ω, R 2 =1.5 Ω, a variable resistor R var , an unknown resistor

R u , and a 9 V battery. When R var , is adjusted to 12 Ω, the ammeter shows zero current as
shown in figure 12.15. what is the unknown resistanceR u ?
A. 3 Ω B. 8 Ω C. 24 Ω D. 7 Ω

Fig 11.15

10. Which statement is correct about the function of the shunt resistance used to convert a
galvanometer into an ammeter?
A. It decreases the resistance of the combination and protects the galvanometer from
excessive current.
B. It increases the resistance of the combination to decrease the current.
C. It converts the galvanometer's reading from current to voltage.
D. It increases the sensitivity of the instrument.
[Link] incandescent bulbs, B1 rated 100 W, 220 V and B2 rated 60W, 220V, are connected in
series across a 220V supply. Which statement about their brightness is correct?
A. 60 W bulb glows brighter C. 100 W bulb glows brighter
B. Both bulbs glow equally bright D. Cannot determine without resistance values
12. In a circuit, bulb B1 is in series with a parallel combination of two identical bulbs, B2 and
B3. All bulbs are identical with resistance R. If bulb B3 suddenly fuses (becomes an open
circuit), what happens to the brightness of B1 and B2?
A. Both B1 and B2 dimmer. C. B1 dimmer and B2 brighter.
B. B1 brighter and B2 dimmer. D. B1 brighter and B2 remains the same

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 Physics Grade 12

Lesson 12

Capacitors and Capacitance

At the end of this lesson delivery, students will be able to:

 Explain the terms capacitors, capacitances, dielectric.

 Explain the effect of inserting dielectric in the gap between the plates of a capacitor.
 Solve problems related to capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
 Determine the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in series and parallel.

12.1 Capacitor and Capacitance

 A capacitor is an electrical device used to store electric charge and energy in an electric
field.
 It consists of two conducting plates, separated by an insulating medium (air, vacuum, or
dielectric).

Figure 12.1: Capacitor, with the positive plate carrying a positive charge and the negative plate
an equal amount of negative charges.

 Capacitance (C) is the ability of a capacitor to store charge per unit potential difference.

𝑸
C=𝑽

 The SI unit of capacitance is the coulomb per volt (C/V), known as the farad (F).
 Since 1 farad is very large, capacitance is usually expressed in smaller units such as μF, nF,
and pF, in practical applications.

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 Physics Grade 12

Parallel-plate Capacitor

 A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two large conducting plates separated by a small

distance.
 It stores electric charge and energy by maintaining a potential difference (V) between plates.
 Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor in air/vacuum:

Figure 12.2 Parallel-plate Capacitor

𝐴
C = 𝜀𝑜 𝑑

Where: A = plate area, d = separation between plates, 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85×10−12 F/m (permittivity of free
space).

 Larger area → more charge stored

 Smaller separation → stronger field → more capacitance

Electric Field Between the Plates

 The electric field between the two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor is uniform and points
from the positive plate to the negative plate.
𝛔 𝑸
E= =
𝛆𝟎 𝜺𝒐 𝑨

Where the charge density 𝝈 on each of these surfaces has a magnitude:

𝑸
𝝈=
𝑨

 The potential difference between each plate is given by:

𝑸𝒅
V = Ed = 𝜺𝒐 𝑨

Dielectrics: is an insulating material placed between capacitor plates.

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 Physics Grade 12

Examples: glass, mica, plastic, paper, air, etc.

 Some properties of dielectric: does not conduct electricity, gets polarized in an electric field,
increases capacitance.

Figure 12.3 Polarization in a dielectric

 When a dielectric of constant k is inserted into a capacitor, its capacitance becomes:"

𝑨
C = 𝑪𝒐 k = 𝐤 𝛆𝟎 𝒅

where C0 is the original capacitance without the dielectric.

Note that: Let dielectric constant = k (>1)

 Case A: Battery remains connected (V = constant)

 Capacitance increases, charge increases, electric field decreases and energy increases.
 Case B: Battery disconnected (Q = constant)
 Capacitance increases, voltage decreases, electric field decreases, and energy decreases.

Example 12.1: The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with air as the medium is 6 μF.
When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates, the capacitance increases to 30 μF.
Determine the permittivity of the dielectric medium. (Use 𝜀𝑜 = 8.85×10−12 F/m permittivity of
free space).

C
Solution: C = 𝐶𝑜 k , k = =5
Co

Exercise 12.1: A parallel-plate capacitor has oil between its plates, with dielectric constant k =
√2. The capacitance with the oil in place is C. If the oil is removed, what is the new capacitance
of the capacitor?

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 Physics Grade 12

12.2 Combination of Capacitors

 Capacitors can be connected in series, parallel, or in mixed networks. Their effective

capacitance depends on how charges and voltages distribute in the circuit.

Capacitors in Series:

 Capacitors are in series when they are connected end-to-end in a single path.
 The same charge (Q) flows and stays on each capacitor.
 The total voltage is the sum of voltages across each capacitor.
 The equivalent capacitance becomes smaller than any individual capacitor.

Figure 12.4 Three capacitors in series. Each has the same charge

1 1 1
1. 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1= 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 , 𝟐. 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 +𝑉2 + 𝑉3, and 3. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = + +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Capacitors in Parallel

 Capacitors are in parallel when both their plates are connected to the same two points.
 The same voltage (V) appears across all capacitors.
 The total charge is the sum of charges on each capacitor.
 The equivalent capacitance becomes larger than any individual capacitor.

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 Physics Grade 12

Fig 12. 5 Three capacitors in parallel each has the same charge

1. 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1= 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 , 𝟐. 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 +𝑄2 + 𝑄3 , and 3. 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

Example12.2: A network of four capacitors is connected to a 22 V voltage source, as shown in

Figure 13.6 below. The capacitances are 𝐶1 =3 μF, 𝐶2 = 6 μF, 𝐶3 = 9 μF, and 𝐶4 =12 μFC_.
Determine the equivalent capacitance of the network and the total charge stored.

Fig12.6

Solution:

18
 The capacitors 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 & 𝐶3 are in series: 𝐶123 = 11 μF
150
 The capacitor 𝐶123 and 𝐶4 are in parallel: 𝐶1234 = μF
11
150
 𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶1234 x 𝑉𝑠 = μF x 22V= 300 μC
11

Color Code of Resistors:

 The color code on a resistor indicates its resistance value and tolerance.
 In the context of resistors, tolerance refers to the allowable variation of the actual
resistance from its nominal (stated) value.
 No resistor is exactly equal to its marked resistance due to manufacturing limitations.
 It is usually given as a percentage.

 Common formats:
 4-Band Resistor: Band 1: 1st digit, Band 2: 2nd digit, Band 3: Multiplier, and Band 4:
Tolerance.

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 Physics Grade 12

Figure 12.7 Color code of resistors

The following chart depicts the ISO standard for each color in the resistor.

Example 12.3: A resistor has color bands Orange – Orange – Red – Gold. Determine the
resistance of the resistor and its tolerance.

Solution: A resistor has color bands Orange – Orange – Red – Gold. The first two bands
represent the digits 3 and 3, giving 33. The third band, Red, is the multiplier 102. Therefore, the
resistance is 33×102 = 3.3 k Ω. The fourth band, Gold, indicates a tolerance of ±5%.

𝑹𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 3.3 k Ω ±5%

44
 Physics Grade 12

Review Exercise for lesson 12

1. A parallel-plate capacitor has plate separation ddd and a potential difference V. If the
separation is doubled without changing V, the electric field:
A. Doubles B. Halves C. Remains the same D. Becomes zero
2. A 4μ capacitor is connected in series with a 6μF capacitor across a 12 V battery. The charge
on the 6μ capacitor is:
A. 12 μC b. 24 μC C. 48 μC D. 6 μC
3. In a series combination of three capacitors, the smallest capacitance stores:
A. Maximum charge C. Minimum charge
B. Maximum energy D. Minimum voltage
4. A 10μF capacitor is charged to 100 V and disconnected. Then a dielectric of k =2 is inserted.
The potential difference across the capacitor becomes:
A. 100V B.200V C. 50V D. 150V
5. The color code of a resistor shows the first two digits as 4 and 7 respectively, and the
multiplier as 103. The resistance is:
A. 470 Ω B. 47 kΩ C. 74 kΩ D. 740 Ω
6. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is C. If the area is doubled and the separation is
halved, the new capacitance is:
A. C/4 B. 4C C. 2C D. ½ C
7. When slab of dielectric medium is placed between plates of a parallel plate capacitor which
is connected with battery then electric field between the plates in comparison with earlier
field:
A. is same C. is less
B. is more D. can’t say
8. In the circuit shown in Figure 12.8 below. What is the charge on the 2 μF capacitor?

Fig12.8

45
 Physics Grade 12

A. 160 mC B. 80 mC C. 40 mC D. 20 mC
9. An air-filled parallel-plate capacitor is to be constructed to store 12 µC of charge when
operated at 1200 V. What are the minimum plate separation and the minimum plate area
required? (Electric field strength of air = 3 x 106V/m).
10. Find the equivalent capacitor and the total amount of charge on capacitor shown in figure
12.9 below.

Fig 12.9

46