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Pure Land oriented practices and concepts are found within basic Mahāyāna Buddhist [[cosmology]], and form an important component of the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Tibet. Chinese [[Zen|Chán]] and [[Tien Tai|Tiantai]] schools, as well as the Japanese [[Shingon]] and [[Tendai]] sects, have strong Pure Land components to their practice and belief. However, Pure Land Buddhism eventually became an independent school in its own right as can be seen in the Japanese [[Jōdo shū|Jōdo Shū]] and [[Jodo Shinshu|Jōdo Shinshū]]<ref>[http://www.buddhistteaching.org/guide-on-buddhism/%20Guide%20on%20Buddhism Guide on Buddhism for America]</ref> schools. In Japan there are several Pure Land sects, but throughout the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism there was never actually an independent Pure Land sect in countries other than Japan.
Pure Land oriented practices and concepts are found within basic Mahāyāna Buddhist [[cosmology]], and form an important component of the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Tibet. Chinese [[Zen|Chán]] and [[Tien Tai|Tiantai]] schools, as well as the Japanese [[Shingon]] and [[Tendai]] sects, have strong Pure Land components to their practice and belief. However, Pure Land Buddhism eventually became an independent school in its own right as can be seen in the Japanese [[Jōdo shū|Jōdo Shū]] and [[Jodo Shinshu|Jōdo Shinshū]]<ref>[http://www.buddhistteaching.org/guide-on-buddhism/%20Guide%20on%20Buddhism Guide on Buddhism for America]</ref> schools. In Japan there are several Pure Land sects, but throughout the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism there was never actually an independent Pure Land sect in countries other than Japan.


==Overview==
==Early history==


[[Image:Seated Buddha Amitabha statue.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Amitābha Buddha seated in meditation. [[Borobodur]], [[Java]], [[Indonesia]].]]
[[Image:Seated Buddha Amitabha statue.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Amitābha Buddha seated in meditation. [[Borobodur]], [[Java]], [[Indonesia]].]]
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At a later date, the Pure Land teachings spread to [[Japan]] and slowly grew in prominence. [[Genshin]] (942-1017) caused [[Fujiwara no Michinaga]] (966-1028) to accept the Pure Land teachings. [[Hōnen]] (1133–1212) established Pure Land Buddhism as an independent sect in Japan, known as Jōdo Shu. Today Pure Land is an important form of Buddhism in Japan, [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Vietnam]].
At a later date, the Pure Land teachings spread to [[Japan]] and slowly grew in prominence. [[Genshin]] (942-1017) caused [[Fujiwara no Michinaga]] (966-1028) to accept the Pure Land teachings. [[Hōnen]] (1133–1212) established Pure Land Buddhism as an independent sect in Japan, known as Jōdo Shu. Today Pure Land is an important form of Buddhism in Japan, [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Vietnam]].

Contemporary Pure Land traditions see Amitābha preaching the [[Dharma]] in his buddha-field ({{lang-sa|buddhakṣetra}}), called the "Pure Land" (Ch. 净土, ''jìngtǔ'') or "Western Heaven" (Ch. 西天, ''xītiān''), a region offering respite from [[karma|karmic]] transmigration. In such traditions, entering the Pure Land is popularly perceived as equivalent to the attainment of enlightenment. After practitioners gain entry in the Pure Land, they have the choice of returning at any time, as a [[bodhisattva]], to any of the [[six realms|six realms of existence]] to help all sentient beings in [[samsara|saṃsāra]] or to stay the whole duration, reach Buddhahood, and subsequently deliver beings to the shore of liberation.

The Pure Land path has been popular among both commoners and elite monastics as it provided a straightforward way of attaining awakening. In [[medieval Japan]] it was especially popular among those on the outskirts of society, such as hunters, fishermen, prostitutes, and other outcasts. Despite their offenses in the traditional Buddhist view, these people were able to find solace in Pure Land tradition.


==The Pure Land==
==The Pure Land==


The Pure Land is described in the ''Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' as a land of beauty that surpasses all other realms. More importantly for the Pure Land practitioner, once one has been "born" into this land (birth occurs painlessly through lotus flowers), one will never again be reborn. In the Pure Land one will be personally instructed by Amitābha Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas until one reaches full and complete enlightenment. In effect, being born into the Pure Land is akin to escaping saṃsāra, thereby achieving enlightenment.
Contemporary Pure Land traditions see Amitābha expounding the [[Dharma]] in his buddha-field (''buddhakṣetra''), or "pure land" (Ch. 净土, ''jìngtǔ''), a region offering respite from [[karma|karmic]] transmigration. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is described in the ''Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra'' as a land of beauty that surpasses all other realms. In Pure Land traditions, entering the Pure Land is popularly perceived as equivalent to the attainment of enlightenment. Upon entry into the Pure Land, the practitioner is then instructed by Amitābha Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas until full and complete enlightenment is reached. This person then has the choice of returning at any time as a [[bodhisattva]] to any of the [[six realms|six realms of existence]] in order to help all sentient beings in [[samsara|saṃsāra]], or to stay the whole duration, reach Buddhahood, and subsequently deliver beings to the shore of liberation.


In Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are many buddhas, and each buddha has a pure land. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is understood to be in the western direction, whereas [[Akshobhya|Akṣobhya]]'s pure land of [[Abhirati]] is to the east. While recognized by the Japanese [[Shingon]] sect, Eastern Pure Land Buddhism is less popular than Western Pure Land Buddhism. Though there are other traditions devoted to various Pure Lands, Amitabha's is by far the most popular.
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are many buddhas, and each buddha has a pure land. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is understood to be in the western direction, whereas [[Akshobhya|Akṣobhya]]'s pure land of [[Abhirati]] is to the east. While recognized by the Japanese [[Shingon]] sect, Eastern Pure Land Buddhism is less popular than Western Pure Land Buddhism. Though there are other traditions devoted to various Pure Lands, Amitabha's is by far the most popular.

Revision as of 23:46, 14 April 2011

Amitābha Buddha and his attendant bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara (right) and Mahāsthāmaprāpta (left). Taiwanese temple.
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Pure Land Buddhism (simplified Chinese: 净土宗; traditional Chinese: 淨土宗, Jìngtǔzōng; Template:Lang-ja, Jōdo bukkyō; Korean: 정토종, jeongtojong; Vietnamese: 浄土宗, Tịnh Độ Tông), also referred to as Amidism[1][2] in English, is a broad branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism and currently one of the most popular traditions of Buddhism in East Asia. Pure Land is a branch of Buddhism focused on Amitābha Buddha. The term is used to describe both the Pure Land soteriology of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which may be better understood as Pure Land traditions, and the separate Pure Land sects that developed in Japan; in other countries and times, it formed part of the basis of Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions.

Pure Land oriented practices and concepts are found within basic Mahāyāna Buddhist cosmology, and form an important component of the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Tibet. Chinese Chán and Tiantai schools, as well as the Japanese Shingon and Tendai sects, have strong Pure Land components to their practice and belief. However, Pure Land Buddhism eventually became an independent school in its own right as can be seen in the Japanese Jōdo Shū and Jōdo Shinshū[3] schools. In Japan there are several Pure Land sects, but throughout the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism there was never actually an independent Pure Land sect in countries other than Japan.

Early history

Statue of Amitābha Buddha seated in meditation. Borobodur, Java, Indonesia.
Book open to the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra.
Mount Lu, where the Chinese Pure Land tradition was founded.

The Pure Land teachings were first developed in India, and were very popular in Kashmir and Central Asia, where they may have originated.[4] Pure Land sutras were brought from the Gandhāra region to China as early as 147 CE, when the Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating the first Buddhist sūtras into Chinese.[5] The earliest of these translations show evidence of having been translated from the Gāndhārī language, a prakrit descended from Vedic Sanskrit, which was used in Northwest India.[6]

The Pure Land sūtras are principally the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. The shorter sūtra is also known as the Amitābha Sūtra, and the longer sūtra is also known as the Infinite Life Sūtra. These sutras describe Amitābha and his Pure Land of Bliss, called Sukhāvatī. Also related to the Pure Land tradition is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra, which describes the practice of reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha as a meditation method.

In the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra, the Buddha describes to his attendant Ānanda, how the buddha Amitābha, as an advanced monk named Dharmakara, made a great series of vows to save all sentient beings, and through his great merit, created a realm called the Land of Bliss (Sukhāvatī).[7] This land of Sukhāvatī would later come to be known as the Pure Land (Ch. 淨土) in Chinese translation.

In the Buddhist traditions of India, Pure Land doctrines and practices were disseminated by well-known exponents of the Mahāyāna teachings, including Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu.[8] Although Amitābha is honored and venerated in Pure Land traditions, this was clearly distinguished from worship of the Hindu gods, as Pure Land practice has its roots in the Buddhist ideal of the bodhisattva.[9]

The Pure Land teachings played a role in early Mahāyāna Buddhism in India, but first became prominent in China with the founding of Donglin Temple at Mount Lu (Ch. 廬山) by Huiyuan (Ch. 慧遠) in 402 CE. As a young man, Huiyuan practiced Daoism, but felt the theories of immortality to be vague and unreliable, and unrepresentative of the ultimate truth.[10] Instead, he turned to Buddhism and became a monk learning under Dao An (Ch. 道安). Later he founded a monastery at the top of Mount Lu, and invited well-known literati to study and practice Buddhism there, where they formed the White Lotus Society (Ch. 白蓮社).[11] They accepted the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra and the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as their standards among the Buddhist sūtras, and they advocated the practice of reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha in order to attain rebirth in the western pure land of Sukhāvatī.[12]

The Pure Land teachings and meditation methods quickly spread throughout China and were systematized by a series of elite monastic thinkers, namely Tanluan, Daochuo, Shandao, and others. The main teaching of the Chinese Pure Land tradition is based on focusing the mind with Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti) through recitation of the name of Amitābha Buddha, so as to attain rebirth in his pure land of Sukhāvatī.[13]

At a later date, the Pure Land teachings spread to Japan and slowly grew in prominence. Genshin (942-1017) caused Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1028) to accept the Pure Land teachings. Hōnen (1133–1212) established Pure Land Buddhism as an independent sect in Japan, known as Jōdo Shu. Today Pure Land is an important form of Buddhism in Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam.

The Pure Land

Contemporary Pure Land traditions see Amitābha expounding the Dharma in his buddha-field (buddhakṣetra), or "pure land" (Ch. 净土, jìngtǔ), a region offering respite from karmic transmigration. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is described in the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as a land of beauty that surpasses all other realms. In Pure Land traditions, entering the Pure Land is popularly perceived as equivalent to the attainment of enlightenment. Upon entry into the Pure Land, the practitioner is then instructed by Amitābha Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas until full and complete enlightenment is reached. This person then has the choice of returning at any time as a bodhisattva to any of the six realms of existence in order to help all sentient beings in saṃsāra, or to stay the whole duration, reach Buddhahood, and subsequently deliver beings to the shore of liberation.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are many buddhas, and each buddha has a pure land. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is understood to be in the western direction, whereas Akṣobhya's pure land of Abhirati is to the east. While recognized by the Japanese Shingon sect, Eastern Pure Land Buddhism is less popular than Western Pure Land Buddhism. Though there are other traditions devoted to various Pure Lands, Amitabha's is by far the most popular.

Meditation

Charles Luk identifies three meditation practices as being widely used in Pure Land Buddhism.[14]

Mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha

Repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha is traditionally a form of Mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo, by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that buddha (See: samādhi).[15] This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day, often from 50,000 to over 500,000.[15] According to tradition, the second patriarch of the Pure Land school, Shandao, is said to have practiced this day and night without interruption, each time emitting light from his mouth. Therefore he was bestowed with the title "Great Master of Light" (大師光明) by the Tang Dynasty emperor Gao Zong (Ch. 高宗).[16]

In Chinese Buddhism, there is a related practice called the "dual path of Chán and Pure Land cultivation", which is also called the "dual path of emptiness and existence."[17] As taught by Nan Huaijin, the name of Amitābha Buddha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the phrase is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind is able to remain peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the attainment of samādhi.[17]

Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī

Repeating the Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. Similar to the mindfulness practice of repeating the name of Amitābha Buddha, this dhāraṇī is another method of meditation and recitation in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.[16] It is traditionally preserved in Sanskrit, and it is said that when a devotee succeeds in realizing singleness of mind by repeating a mantra, its true and profound meaning will be clearly revealed.[16]

namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā
amṛtabhave amṛtasaṃbhave
amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrāntagāmini
gagana kīrtīchare svāhā

Visualization methods

Another practice found in Pure Land Buddhism is meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha Buddha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. The basis of this is found in the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra ("Amitābha Meditation Sūtra"), in which the Buddha describes to Queen Vaidehi the practices of sixteen progressive visualization methods, corresponding to the attainment of various levels of rebirth in the Pure Land.[18] Visualization practises for Amitābha are popular among esoteric Buddhist sects, such as Japanese Shingon Buddhism, and especially, profoundly in Vajrayana Buddhism.

Going to the Pure Land

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Practitioners claim there is evidence of dying people going to the pure land, such as:

  • Knowing the time of death (預知時至) - some prepare by bathing and reciting the name of the Buddha Amitabha.
  • The "Three Saints of the West" (西方三聖) (Amitābha Buddha and the two bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara on his right and Mahāsthāmaprāpta on his left), appear and welcome the dying person. Visions of other buddhas or bodhisattvas are disregarded as they may be bad spirits disguising themselves, attempting to stop the person from entering the Pure Land.[19]
  • Records of practicing Pure Land Buddhists who have died have been known to leave śarīrā, or relics, after cremation .

The last part of the body to become cold is the top of the head (posterior fontanelle). In Buddhist teaching, souls who enter the Pure Land leave the body through the fontanelle at the top of the skull. Hence, this part of the body stays warmer longer than the rest of the body. The Verses on the Structure of the Eight Consciousnesses (八識規矩補註),[20] reads: "to birth in saints the last body temperature in top of head, to deva in eyes, to human in heart, to hungry ghosts in belly, to animals in knee cap, to the hells-realm in sole of feet." See also: phowa.

The dying person may demonstrate some, but not necessarily all, of these evidences. For example, his facial expression may be happy, but he may not demonstrate other signs, such as sharira and dreams.

Few buddhist also have practiced the harder Pratyutpanna samadhi.

The practice Fudaraku Tokai (補陀落渡海) in ancient Japan is viewed as religious suicide and is not practiced today.[21][22]

Variance between traditions

In Chinese Buddhism, Pure Land practice never became a sect of Buddhism separate from general Mahāyāna practice. In particular, Pure Land and Zen practice are often seen as being mutually compatible, and no strong distinctions are made.[23] Chinese Buddhists have traditionally viewed the practice of meditation and the practice of reciting Amitābha Buddha's name, as complementary and even analogous methods for achieving enlightenment.[24] This is because because they view recitation as a meditation method used to concentrate the mind and purify thoughts.[25] Chinese Buddhists widely consider this form of recitation as a very effective form of meditation practice.[26]

In Japanese Buddhism, Pure Land practice exists independently as two sects: Jōdo shū and Jōdo Shinshū. Strong institutional boundaries exist between sects which serve to clearly separate these Pure Land schools from the Japanese Zen schools.[27] One notable exception to this is found in the Ōbaku Zen school, which was founded in Japan during the 17th century by the Chinese Buddhist monk Yinyuan Longqi (J. Ingen Ryuki). This form of Zen retains many Chinese features such as mindfulness of Amitābha Buddha through recitation, and recitation of the Pure Land sūtras.[28]

Pure Land concepts in Tibet

Tibetan Pure Land Buddhism has a long and innovative history dating from the 8th-9th centuries CE, the times of the Tibetan Empire, with the translation and canonization of the Sanskrit Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras in Tibetan. Tibetan compositions of pure-land prayers and artistic renditions of Sukhāvatī in Central Asia date to that time. Tibetan pure-land literature forms a distinct genre (Tib. bde-smon) and encompasses a wide range of scriptures, "aspiration prayers to be born in Sukhāvatī", commentaries on the prayers and the sūtras, and meditations and rituals belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition. The incorporation of phowa (mind transference techniques) in pure-land meditations is textually attested in the 14th century, in the The Standing Blade of Grass (Tib. 'Pho-ba 'Jag-tshug ma), a terma text allegedly dating to the time of the Tibetan Empire. A good number of Buddhist treasure texts are dedicated to Buddha Amitābha and to rituals associated with his pure-land, while the wide acceptance of phowa in Tibetan death rituals may owe its popularity to pure-land Buddhism promoted by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

The terton Rigdzin Longsal Nyingpo (1625-1682/92 or 1685–1752) of Katok Monastery revealed a terma on pureland.[29] This terma entailed phowa during the bardo of dying, sending the mindstream to a pureland. This may evidence what some scholars have intimated as examples of successful, popular teachings disseminated from other localities such as China being codified within the Tibetan tradition; terma as cultural innovation.

Gyatrul (b.1924),[30] in a purport to the work of Chagmé (Wylie: Karma-chags-med, fl. 17th century), rendered into English by Wallace (Chagmé et al., 1998: p. 35), states:

It is important to apply our knowledge internally. The Buddha attained enlightenment in this way. The pure lands are internal; the mental afflictions are internal. The crucial factor is to recognize the mental afflictions. Only by recognizing their nature can we attain Buddhahood.[31]

References and Further Reading

Corless, Roger. 1989. ‘Pure Land and Pure Perspective: A Tantric Hermeneutic of Sukhāvatī.’ The Pure Land, New Series, 6: 205-17.

Halkias, T. Georgios. 2009. “Compassionate Aspirations and their fulfilment: Dol-po-pa’s A Prayer for Birth in Sukhāvatī .” In As Long As Space Endures: Essays on the Kālachakra Tantra in Honor of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications, pp. 259–275.

_____. 2006. “Pure-Lands and other Visions in Seventeenth-Century Tibet: a Gnam-chos sādhana for the pure-land Sukhāvatī revealed in 1658 by Gnam-chos Mi-’gyur-rdo-rje (1645-1667).” In Power, Politics and the Reinvention of Tradition: Tibet in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century, ed. B. Cuevas et al. Leiden: Brill Publishers, pp. 121–151.

______.2006. Transferring to the Land of Bliss: Among Sukhavati Texts and Practices. Doctoral Thesis. Oxford: University of Oxford.

Kajihama, Ryoshun. 2002a. Tibet no Jyōdo Shisō no Kenkyū (Japanese. The Study of Pure Land in Tibet). Kyoto: Nagata Bunshōdō.

______.2002b. “3rd rDo Gruchen Rinpoche’s Pure Land Thought (III).” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 50/2: 984-87.

______.1996. “3rd rDo Gruchen Rinpoche’s Pure Land Thought (II).” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 44/2: 948-52.

______.1994. “3rd rDo Gruchen Rinpoche’s Pure Land Thought (I).” Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 43/1: 492-98.

______.1991. “A Study of a Prayer Book on Rebirth in the Land of Bliss (Sukhāvatī) Written by Tsong kha pa.” Monograph published by the Faculty of International Language and Culture, Setsunan University, 23/3: 293-322.

Kapstein, Matthew. 2004. “Pure Land Buddhism in Tibet? From Sukhāvatī to the Field of Great Bliss.” In Approaching the Land of Bliss: Religious Praxis in the Cult of Amitābha, ed. R. Payne and K. Tanaka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,1-16.

______.1998. “A Pilgrimage of Rebirth Reborn: the 1992 Celebration of the Drigung Powa Chenmo”. In Buddhism in Contemporary Tibet, ed. M. Goldstein and M. Kapstein, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 95-119.

Mei, Ching Hsuan. 2004. “’Pho ba Liturgy in 14th Century Tibet.” Tibet Journal, XXIX/2: 47-70.

Silk, Jonathan. 1993. “The Virtues of Amitābha: A Tibetan Poem from Dunhuang.” Bükkyo Bunka Kenkyüjo Kiyö, 32.

Smith, H. and Novak, P. (2003). "The Flowering of Faith: Buddhism's Pure Land Tradition" (pp. 185-198) in Smith, Huston (2003). Buddhism: A concise introduction. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0060506962. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Amidism", Britannica Online Encyclopedia, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007174/Amidism
  2. ^ "Amidism", The Columbia Encyclopedia, http://www.bartleby.com/65/x-/X-Amidism.html
  3. ^ Guide on Buddhism for America
  4. ^ Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 104
  5. ^ "The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalog (T. 361)".
  6. ^ Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. India in Early Central Asia. 1996. p. 15
  7. ^ Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life: Part 1
  8. ^ Inagaki, Hisao. The Three Pure Land Sutras. 2003. pp. xiii-xiv
  9. ^ Inagaki, Hisao. The Three Pure Land Sutras. 2003. p. xiv
  10. ^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 83
  11. ^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 81
  12. ^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 82
  13. ^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 91
  14. ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. pp. 83-84
  15. ^ a b Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 83
  16. ^ a b c Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 84
  17. ^ a b Yuan, Margaret. Grass Mountain: A Seven Day Intensive in Ch'an Training with Master Nan Huai-Chin. 1986. p. 55
  18. ^ Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 85
  19. ^ 淨空法師佛學問答(死生篇)
  20. ^ Taisho Tripitaka no 1865
  21. ^ 補陀落渡海の記録
  22. ^ 補陀落渡海について
  23. ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 20
  24. ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 20
  25. ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 20
  26. ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 20
  27. ^ Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 20
  28. ^ Baroni, Helen Josephine. Iron Eyes: The Life and Teachings of the Ōbaku Zen master Tetsugen Dōko. 2006. pp. 5-6
  29. ^ Khadro, Chagdud (1998, 2003). P'howa Commentary: Instructions for the Practice of Consciousness Transference as Revealed by Rigzin Longsal Nyingpo. Junction City, CA, USA: Pilgrims Publishing
  30. ^ Source: [1] (accessed: Wednesday March 25, 2009)
  31. ^ Chagmé, Karma (author, compiler); Gyatrul Rinpoche (commentary) & Wallace, B. Alan (translator) (1998). A Spacious Path to Freedom: Practical Instructions on the Union of Mahamudra and Atiyoga. Ithaca, New York, USA: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 9781559390712; ISBN 1559390719, p.35

Further reading

  • Eitel, Ernst J. Hand-Book of Chinese Buddhism, being a Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary with Vocabularies of Buddhist Terms in Pali, Singhalese, Siamese, Burmese, Tibetan, Mongolian and Japanese (Second Edition). New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. 1992.
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