The Ninety East Ridge (also rendered as Ninetyeast Ridge, 90E Ridge or 90°E Ridge) is a mid-ocean ridge on the Indian Ocean floor named for its near-parallel strike along the 90th meridian at the center of the Eastern Hemisphere. It is approximately 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) in length and can be traced topographically from the Bay of Bengal southward towards the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR), though the feature continues to the north where it is hidden beneath the sediments of the Bengal Fan. The ridge extends between latitudes 31°S and 9°N and has an average width of 200 km (120 mi).[1]
Description
editThe ridge divides the Indian Ocean into the West and East Indian Ocean. The northeastern side is named the Wharton Basin and ceases at the western end of the Diamantina fracture zone which passes to the east and almost to the Australian continent.[2]
The ridge is primarily composed of Ocean Island Tholeiites (OIT), a subset of basalt which were shown to increase in age from approximately 43.2 ± 0.5 million years ago in the south to 81.8 ± 2.6 million years ago in the north.[3] A more recent analysis using modern Ar–Ar techniques gives an age progression from 77 million years ago at 5°N to 43 million years ago at 31°S.[4] Even more recent work with more samples gives a range of 82 to 37 million years ago[5]: 1178 This age progression has led geologists to theorize that a hotspot in the mantle beneath the Indo-Australian plate created the ridge as the plate has moved northward in the late Mesozoic and Cenozoic. This theory was supported by analysis of the chemistry of the Kerguelen Plateau and Rajmahal Traps, which were believed to represent the flood basalts erupted at the initiation of volcanism at the Kerguelen hotspot which was then sheared in two as the Indian subcontinent moved northward.[3] However the area of the Ninety East Ridge as well as being related to the hotspot was noted to be part of the diffuse boundary between the Indian plate and Australian plate.[6]: 411–12 This has led to modifications of understanding. Some maintain close to the original view.[7]: 1105–6 The Ninety East Ridge has no systematic isotopic variation observed along the ridge and this is inconsistent with the hypothesis of an ageing mantle plume origin for all of the ridge.[5]: 1177 At least three distinct sources must have contributed to the basalts of the ridge.[5]: 1177 This results in the interpretation that at least two separate hotspots contributed and the Ninety East Ridge is predominantly a historic divergent plate boundary with eruptives from a deep mantle source.[5]: 1177 [7][8]: 131
Surveying
editThe ridge has been surveyed several times in the past, including several times by the Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP). In 2007, the RV Roger Revelle collected bathymetric, magnetic and seismic data together with dredge samples from nine sites along the ridge as part of an Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) site survey intended to examine the hotspot hypothesis for the ridge.[9]
Origins
editIt had been assumed that India and Australia were on a single tectonic plate for at least the last 32 million years. However, considering the high level of large earthquakes in the Ninety East Ridge area and the evidence of deformation in the central Indian Ocean, it is more appropriate to consider the deformed region in the central Indian Ocean as a broad plate boundary zone separating the Indian plate and the Australian plate.[1][10]
Paleontology
editDuring the late Paleocene around 60 million years ago, parts of the Ninety East Ridge were temporarily exposed for 2–3 million years as volcanic islands probably 1,000 km (600 mi) from the nearest land. Preserved pollen and plant cuticle fragments have been found in boreholes drilled on the ridge. The flora has been noted to be most similar to Australian and Antarctic floras, rather than to Indian floras, including Podocarpaceae conifers, as well as 15 species of angiosperms, including members of Arecaceae, Chloranthaceae sensu lato, Lauraceae, Gunnera, Gillbeea, and possibly Callitrichaceae.[11]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Stein, S.; Okal, W. A. (1974). "Seismicity and Tectonics of the Ninetyeast Ridge Area: Evidence for Internal Deformation of the Indian Plate" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 83 (B5): 2233. Bibcode:1978JGR....83.2233S. doi:10.1029/jb083ib05p02233. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
- ^ Stow, D. A. V. (2006) Oceans : an illustrated reference Chicago : University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-77664-6 – page 127 for map of Indian Ocean and ridges
- ^ a b Weis, D.; et al. (1993). "The Influence of Mantle Plumes in Generation of Indian Oceanic Crust". Synthesis of Results from Scientific Drilling in the Indian Ocean. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 70. pp. 57–89. Bibcode:1992GMS....70...57W. doi:10.1029/gm070p0057. ISBN 9781118668030.
- ^ Frey, F.A.; Pringle, M.; Meleney, P.; Huang, S.; Piotrowski, A. (March 2011). "Diverse mantle sources for Ninetyeast Ridge magmatism: Geochemical constraints from basaltic glasses". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 303 (3–4): 215–224. Bibcode:2011E&PSL.303..215F. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.12.051.
- ^ a b c d Nobre Silva, IG; Weis, D; Scoates, JS; Barling, J (2013). "The Ninetyeast Ridge and its relation to the Kerguelen, Amsterdam and St. Paul hotspots in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Petrology. 54 (6): 1177–210. doi:10.1093/petrology/egt009.
- ^ Gaina, C; Müller, RD; Brown, BJ; Ishihara, T (2003). "Microcontinent formation around Australia". In Hillis, RR; Müller, RD (eds.). Evolution and Dynamics of the Australian Plate (PDF). Geological Society of Australia Special Publication 22 and Geological Society of America Special Paper 372. pp. 405–16. Retrieved 2023-11-14.
- ^ a b Sreejith, KM; Krishna, KS (28 February 2015). "Magma production rate along the Ninetyeast Ridge and its relationship to Indian plate motion and Kerguelen hot spot activity". Geophysical Research Letters. 42 (4): 1105–12. doi:10.1002/2014GL062993.
- ^ Bredow, E; Steinberger, B (16 January 2018). "Variable melt production rate of the Kerguelen hotspot due to long‐term plume‐ridge interaction". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (1): 126–36. doi:10.1002/2017GL075822. hdl:10852/70913.
- ^ "Seismic Project Information KNOX06RR Ninetyeast Ridge IODP Survey". The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on 2017-05-10. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
- ^ Van Orman, J.; Cochran, J. R.; Weissel, J. K.; Jestin, F. (1995). "Distribution of shortening between the Indian and Australian plates in the central Indian Ocean". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 133 (1–2): 35–46. Bibcode:1995E&PSL.133...35V. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.508.956. doi:10.1016/0012-821x(95)00061-g.
- ^ Carpenter, Raymond J.; Truswell, Elizabeth M.; Harris, Wayne K. (2010-03-02). "Lauraceae fossils from a volcanic Palaeocene oceanic island, Ninetyeast Ridge, Indian Ocean: ancient long-distance dispersal?: Indian Ocean Lauraceae fossils". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (7): 1202–1213. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02279.x. S2CID 83060879.
Further reading
edit- Sager, William W. (2007). "Cruise Report KNOX06RR R/V Roger Revelle 18 June to 6 August, 2007, Phuket to Singapore" (PDF). Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2011-09-23.
- Nobre Silva, I. G. (2011). Deciphering mantle source components in basalts from hotspot tracks and oceanic islands (Thesis). University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0053092.
- Sager, W. W.; Paul, C.F.; Krishna, K.S.; Pringle, M.S.; Eisin, A.E.; Frey, F.A.; Rao, D.G.; Levchenko, O.V. (September 2010). "Large fault fabric of the Ninetyeast Ridge implies near-spreading ridge formation" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 37 (L17304): n/a. Bibcode:2010GeoRL..3717304S. doi:10.1029/2010GL044347.
- Verzhbitsky, E. V. (2003). "Geothermal regime and genesis of the Ninety-East and Chagos-Laccadive ridges". Journal of Geodynamics. 35 (3): 289–302. Bibcode:2003JGeo...35..289V. doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(02)00068-6.
External links
edit- Video including 90 East Ridge Formation (94 Ma (million years ago) – present). YouTube. Plate tectonics, Paleogeography, & Ice Ages (dual hemispheres) by Christopher Scotese, 2019. (Field Museum of Natural History & Northwestern University).
- Video including 90 East Ridge Formation (94 Ma (million years ago) – present). YouTube. Plate Tectonics, 540Ma – Modern World by Christopher Scotese, 2016. (Field Museum of Natural History & Northwestern University).