Laboratory automation: Difference between revisions

At least since 1875 there have been reports of automated devices for scientific investigation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Olsen|first = Kevin|date = 2012-12-01|title = The First 110 Years of Laboratory Automation Technologies, Applications, and the Creative Scientist|journal = Journal of Laboratory Automation|language = en|volume = 17|issue = 6|pages = 469–480|doi = 10.1177/2211068212455631|issn = 2211-0682|pmid = 22893633|s2cid = 37758591|doi-access = free}}{{Dead link|date=December 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> These first devices were mostly built by scientists themselves in order to solve problems in the laboratory. After the second world war, companies started to provide automated equipment with greater and greater complexity.

Automation steadily spread in laboratories through the 20th century, but then a revolution took place: in the early 1980s, the first fully automated laboratory was opened by [[Masahide Sasaki|Dr. Masahide Sasaki]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Felder|first = Robin A.|date = 2006-04-01|title = The Clinical Chemist: Masahide Sasaki, MD, PhD (August 27, 1933 – September 23, 2005)|journal = Clinical Chemistry|language = en|volume = 52|issue = 4|pages = 791–792|doi = 10.1373/clinchem.2006.067686|issn = 0009-9147|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last = Boyd|first = James|date = 2002-01-18|title = Robotic Laboratory Automation|journal = Science|language = en|volume = 295|issue = 5554|pages = 517–518|doi = 10.1126/science.295.5554.517|issn = 0036-8075|pmid = 11799250|dfs2cid = 108766687}}</ref> In 1993, [[Rod Markin|Dr. Rod Markin]] at the [[University of Nebraska Medical Center]] created one of the world's first clinical automated laboratory management systems.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.limsource.com/products/lis/vlabint.html |title=LIM Source, a laboratory information management systems resource |access-date=2009-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090811070358/http://limsource.com/products/lis/vlabint.html |archive-date=2009-08-11 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the mid-1990s, he chaired a standards group called the Clinical Testing Automation Standards Steering Committee (CTASSC) of the [[American Association for Clinical Chemistry]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/46/5/746.pdf |title=''Clinical Chemistry'' 46, No. 5, 2000, pgs. 246–250 |access-date=2009-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607112837/http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/46/5/746.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/528531-1.html |title=''Health Management Technology'' magazine, October 1, 1995 |access-date=2009-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217011631/http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/528531-1.html |archive-date=2012-02-17 |url-status=live }}</ref> which later evolved into an area committee of the [[Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nccls.org/ |title=Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS) |access-date=2009-02-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007123141/http://nccls.org/ |archive-date=2008-10-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2004, the [http://www.nih.gov/ National Institutes of Health] (NIH) and more than 300 nationally recognized leaders in academia, industry, government, and the public completed the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611171315/http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/ NIH Roadmap] to accelerate medical discovery to improve health. The [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611171315/http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/ NIH Roadmap] clearly identifies technology development as a mission critical factor in the Molecular Libraries and Imaging Implementation Group (see the first theme – New Pathways to Discovery – at https://web.archive.org/web/20100611171315/http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/).

Despite the success of Dr. Sasaki laboratory and others of the kind, the multi-million dollar cost of such laboratories has prevented adoption by smaller groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last = Felder|first = Robin A|date = 1998-12-01|title = Modular workcells: modern methods for laboratory automation|journal = Clinica Chimica Acta|volume = 278|issue = 2|pages = 257–267|doi = 10.1016/S0009-8981(98)00151-X|pmid = 10023832}}</ref> This is all more difficult because devices made by different manufactures often cannot communicate with each other. However, recent advances based on the use of scripting languages like [[AutoIt|Autoit]] have made possible the integration of equipment from different manufacturers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last = Carvalho|first = Matheus C.|date = 2013-08-01|title = Integration of Analytical Instruments with Computer Scripting|journal = Journal of Laboratory Automation|language = en|volume = 18|issue = 4|pages = 328–333|doi = 10.1177/2211068213476288|issn = 2211-0682|pmid = 23413273|df = |doi-access = free}}</ref> Using this approach, many low-cost electronic devices, including open-source devices,<ref>{{Cite book|url = |title = Chapter 1 – Introduction to Open-Source Hardware for Science|last = Pearce|first = Joshua M.|date = 2014-01-01|publisher = Elsevier|isbn = 9780124104624|location = Boston|pages = 1–11|doi = 10.1016/b978-0-12-410462-4.00001-9}}</ref> become compatible with common laboratory instruments.

Some startups such as [[Emerald Cloud Lab]] and [[TranscripticStrateos]] attemptprovide toon-demand provideand automated[[cloud laboratory|remote laboratory access]] on a commercial scale. A 2017 study indicates that these commercial-scale, fully integrated automated laboratories can improve reproducibility and transparency in basic biomedical experiments, and that over nine in ten biomedical papers use methods currently available through these groups.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=29134146|pmc=5681851|year=2017|last1=Groth|first1=P.|title=Indicators for the use of robotic labs in basic biomedical research: A literature analysis|journal=PeerJ|volume=5|pages=e3997|last2=Cox|first2=J.|doi=10.7717/peerj.3997 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A large obstacle to the implementation of automation in laboratories has been its high cost. Many laboratory instruments are very expensive. This is justifiable in many cases, as such equipment can perform very specific tasks employing cutting-edge technology. However, there are devices employed in the laboratory that are not highly technological but still are very expensive. This is the case of many automated devices, which perform tasks that could easily be done by simple and low-cost devices like simple [[Robotic arm#Low-cost robotic arms|robotic arm]]s,<ref name="Carvalho 23–32">{{cite journal |lastlast1=Carvalho |firstfirst1=Matheus C. |last2=Eyre |first2=Bradley D. |date=2013-12-01 |title=A low cost, easy to build, portable, and universal autosampler for liquids |journal=Methods in Oceanography |volume=8 |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1016/j.mio.2014.06.001|bibcode=2013MetOc...8...23C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Robotics-assisted mass spectrometry assay platform enabled by open-source electronics | doi=10.1016/j.bios.2014.08.087 | pmid=25232666 | volume=64 |journal=Biosensors and Bioelectronics |pages=260–268|year= 2015 |last1= Chiu |first1= Shih-Hao |last2= Urban |first2= Pawel L. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Dual robotic arm "production line" mass spectrometry assay guided by multiple Arduino-type microcontrollers | doi=10.1016/j.snb.2016.08.031 | volume=239 |journal=Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical |pages=608–616|year= 2017 |last1= Chen |first1= Chih-Lin |last2= Chen |first2= Ting-Ru |last3= Chiu |first3= Shih-Hao |last4= Urban |first4= Pawel L. | bibcode=2017SeAcB.239..608C }}</ref> universal (open-source) electronic modules,<ref>{{cite journal |url=httphttps://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/an/c4an02013h#!divAbstract |title=Universal electronics for miniature and automated chemical assays |journal=The Analyst |volume=140 |issue=4 |pages=963–975 |access-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106182106/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/an/c4an02013h#!divAbstract#!divAbstract |archive-date=2018-11-06 |url-status=live |doi=10.1039/C4AN02013H |pmid=25535820 |year=2015 |last1=Urban |first1=Pawel L. |bibcode=2015Ana...140..963U }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Open hardware: Self-built labware stimulates creativity |volume=532 |issue=7599 |doi=10.1038/532313d |pmid=27127816 |journal=Nature |page=313 |df= |date=2016-04-20 |bibcode=2016Natur.532..313U |last1=Urban |first1=Pawel |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid31633701">{{cite journal| author=Baillargeon P, Spicer TP, Scampavia L| title=Applications for Open Source Microplate-Compatible Illumination Panels. | journal=J Vis Exp | year= 2019 | volume= | issue= 152 | pages= e60088 | pmid=31633701 | doi=10.3791/60088 | pmcs2cid=204813315 | url=https://wwwpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31633701 }} </ref><ref name="pmid30698997">{{cite journal| author=Baillargeon P, Coss-Flores K, Singhera F, Shumate J, Williams H, DeLuca L | display-authors=etal| title=Design of Microplate-Compatible Illumination Panels for a Semiautomated Benchtop Pipetting System. | journal=SLAS Technol | year= 2019 | volume= 24 | issue= 4 | pages= 399-407399–407 | pmid=30698997 | doi=10.1177/2472630318822476 | pmcs2cid= 73412170| urldoi-access=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30698997 free }} </ref><ref name="pmid29746790">{{cite journal| author=Iglehart B| title=MVO Automation Platform: Addressing Unmet Needs in Clinical Laboratories with Microcontrollers, 3D Printing, and Open-Source Hardware/Software. | journal=SLAS Technol | year= 2018 | volume= 23 | issue= 5 | pages= 423-431423–431 | pmid=29746790 | doi=10.1177/2472630318773693 | pmcs2cid=13671203 | doi-access=free }} </ref> [[Lego Mindstorms]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Waltz |first=Emily |date=2017-03-22 |title=DIY Lego Robot Brings Lab Automation to Students - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://wwwspectrum.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearchieee.org/cite&retmodediy-lego-robot-brings-lab-automation-to-students |access-date=ref&cmd2024-02-02 |website=prlinks&id=29746790[[IEEE Spectrum]] |language=en}} </ref> or [[3D printer]]s.

So far, using such low-cost devices together with laboratory equipment was considered to be very difficult. However, it has been demonstrated that such low-cost devices can substitute without problems the standard machines used in laboratory.<ref name="Carvalho 23–32"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carvalho|first=Matheus|date=|title=Auto-HPGe, an autosampler for gamma-ray spectroscopy using high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors and heavy shields|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327230541|journal=HardwareX|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carvalho|first=Matheus|title=Osmar, the open-source microsyringe autosampler|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322363581|journal=HardwareX|volume=3|pages=10–38|via=|doi=10.1016/j.ohx.2018.01.001|year=2018|doi-access=free}}</ref> It can be anticipated that more laboratories will take advantage of this new reality as low-cost automation is very attractive for laboratories.

A technology that enables the integration of any machine regardless of their brand is scripting, more specifically, scripting involving the control of mouse clicks and keyboard entries, like [[AutoIt]]. By timing clicks and keyboard inputs, different software interfaces controlling different devices can be perfectly synchronized.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307466871|title=Practical Laboratory Automation: Made Easy with AutoIt.|last=Carvalho|first=Matheus|publisher=Wiley VCH|year=2017|isbn=978-3-527-34158-0|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref>

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